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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Determinants of Sexuality
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Biology (e.g., hormones, genetics)
Psychology (e.g., attitudes, emotions, motivations) Social environment (e.g., group membership, culture) |
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Components of Sexuality
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Attitudes (i.e., thoughts, feelings, beliefs)
Behaviors (i.e., actions) Orientations (i.e., direction) |
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Sexology:
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The study of sexuality
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Problems unique to sex research
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1.Representative samples
-Self-selection biases – sex positive attitudes, women -Demographic bias =white, middle-class, white-collar, educated Minimal participation with minorities- means we have underrepresented and overrepresented groups. 2. Honesty/accuracy Socially desirable responses, shame, taboos 3.Difficulty observing |
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Gender Identity
Gender Role |
– one’s subjective sense of being male or female
– the attitudes/behaviors considered “normal” for someone of a particular sex |
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What are the purposes of sexual behaviors?
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1. Recreation/enjoyment
2. Intimacy/connection/bonding 3. Procreation |
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Adolescence Sexuality & Socialization
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Socialization=Sexual double standard
1. Masturbation increase 2.Noncoital sexual expression is common 3.Key time for sex education/communication |
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Sex vs. Gender
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Sex – biological sex (dna, hormones, reproductive structures
Gender – psychosocial characteristics associated with being male or female |
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Extramarital relationships (in adulthood)
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Swinging (partner swapping)
Open marriages/relationships Non-consensual extramarital affairs (approx. 22% globally) |
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Cohabitation
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(short-term), Domestic partnership
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Biological Factors of Sex with age
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Decreased hormone production
Decreased responsiveness, orgasm, etc |
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Sexual Activity with Age
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Many remain active (sexual contact at least once a month) well into their 80’s or later, adjust to biological changes
Percentage of active adults does decrease with age Rising incidence of HIV/AIDS in older adults High rates of unprotected sex, less likely to get tested Correlates/predictors: earlier levels of activity, sex positive attitudes, higher sex drive, overall health |
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Sexual Problems
Disorders Types |
Sexual Disorders – difficulty must occur in the context of adequate physical and psychological sexual stimulation
Types -Desire/arousal, orgasm, pain during intercourse -Lifelong/acquired -Generalized (all situations)/situation specific |
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Psychological Factors on Sex
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Hormonal, vascular, neurological problems
Health (e.g., diet, exercise, weight, illness) Medications |
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Physological Factors on Sex
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Negative learning – shame, guilt
Sexual double standards/gender roles – equality of gender roles Sexual knowledge Self-concept/body image Previous sexual abuse Relationship problems, stress, emotional difficulties |
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Psychoactive Drugs
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Substances that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods
Reduce tension, recreation, curiosity, relieve boredom and fatigue, social interactions |
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Tolerance
Physiological dependence Psychological dependence |
Tolerance – greater dosages needed to achieve same effect
Physiological dependence – the body adjusts to, and depends on, the presence of the drug Psychological dependence – the psychological need or craving for the drug for emotional reasons |
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Hallucinogens
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(a.k.a., psychedelics)
*Modify perceptive experiences. Work on Seratonin. LSD, PCP, Cannabis |
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Opiates
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(a.k.a., narcotics)
Depress CNS, reduce Physical sensation. Bind to endorphins (endogenous Opiodes) receptor sites. Morphine, heroine |
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Stimulants
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*Increase Seratonin, Dopamine. Stimulates CNS
Amphetamines, methamphetamines, MDMA, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine |
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Depressants
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*Decrease Mental Activity, reduces Nerual transmission
Barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol |
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MDMA (Ecstasy)
LSD Marijuana |
MDMA (Ecstasy) – stimulant & hallucinogenic
Memory, cognitive processing, kills serotonergic axons (depression) LSD – serotonin & dopamine Mood swings, attention, memory Marijuana – not specific NT – variety of NT and hormones Excitatory (heart rate), depressive (blood pressure, coordination), and mildly hallucinatory characteristics (distorted perceptions) |
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Cause of Munchies
-Cannabinoids -Endocannabinoids |
Cannabinoids=active chemical in marijuana
Endocannabinoids (e.g., anandamine) = Appetite, mood, pain-sensations play a role in regulating food consumption (increase appetite) & reward systems in the brain Make people seek foods that are sweet and taste good (i.e., junk foods) |
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Opiates
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-Reduce physical sensation and response to stimulation, -depress CNS activity
-Bind to endorphin (endogenous opiods) receptor sites =Euphoria, pain-free Highly addictive!!!! Very painful withdrawal!!!! |
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Stimulants
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Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA
Increase CNS activity, increase NT levels (e.g., norepinepherine, serotonin, dopamine) Increases self-confidence, greater energy, hyperalertness, mood alterations approaching euphoria Moderate to high risks of dependence |
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Depressants
Barbiturates (sleep aids, sedatives) Benzodiazepines – Alcohol |
Barbiturates (sleep aids, sedatives)
Decrease CNS activity Addictive, potent – risk for overdose Benzodiazepines – tranquilizers (e.g., Xanax) reduce anxiety, relaxation |
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How does alcohol affect the CNS? What neurotransmitter does it act on?
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GABA!!!
Increases Gaba and depresses neural activity. It makes you less inhibited and less capable of regulating behaviors. |
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Motives for Drinking
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1. Social Motives
It’s what your friends do, You want to be sociable 2. Enhancement Motives It’s fun, you like how it feels 3. Coping Motives (more negative outcomes) Relax, deal with stress, forget worries |
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Personality & Motives
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Extraverts= social & enhancement
Conscientious= less; social & enhancement Neuroticism =coping |
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What differentiates being a little quirky from disordered behavior?
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Psychological Disorders=
Emotional, behavioral, or cognitive patterns that are 1. deviant 2. distressing 3. maladaptive. -Not all components are present in all disorders |
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Deviant
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Atypical behaviors that violate (or deviate from) social norms
Cultural expectations Atypical behaviors ≠ disorder ex= having a lot of tattoos |
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Distressing
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1. Atypical periods of distress (prolonged, lack of) if you take 2 years to get over an ex
2. Distress as a result of the behavioral, emotional, or cognitive pattern |
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Maladaptive (2 components)
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1. Impairment= Disrupts one’s ability to function effectively in the world
-Disrupts Relate to other people -Disrupts Accomplish/achieve 2. Potentially Harmful/Dangerous -Risky behaviors -Self-destructive -Potential harm to others |
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DSM-IV Classification System
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Multiaxial system – classifies the individual based on 5 dimensions
See table for the 5 axis** |
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Problems with Diagnosing Psychological Disorders
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1. By diagnosing someone you are Reducing the level of responsibility they need to take for behavior
2. Problems with Over-diagnosis, confusion of everyday problems with serious mental disorders example=ADHD 3. Labeling – stigma, self-fulfilling prophecies You engage in behaviors that you are told will happen/expect will happen. I have major depressive disorder so I’m ultimately going to crawl in bed and never get out. Subconsciously do what you believe is ‘supposed’ to happen. 4. Illusion of objectivity – culturally defined standards. What is devient in one culture may not be in another. |
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Anxiety
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A negative mood state that is characterized by diffuse, vague, highly unpleasant feelings of fear, dread, or apprehension
Jittery, nervous, muscle tension |
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Anxiety Disorders
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-Anxiety is uncontrollable either the level of anxiety or onset.
-Level of anxiety is unreasonable/disproportionate depending on the situation -PERSISTENT anxiety disrupts functioning example: inability to leave the house. |
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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General feeling of worry, apprehension, and anxiety that persists for at least 6 months with no identifiable source
1.More females (2/3) than males 2.Earlier and more gradual onset than other anxiety disorders |
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Panic Disorder
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Recurrent, sudden onsets of intense fear (terror) and apprehension
Heart palpitations, shortness of breath, chest pains, trembling, dizziness, sweating, choking, fear of dying |
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Panic Disorder example: Agorophobia
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Additional fears focused on public places and the inability to escape a situation
Prevalence: Approx. 2.7% (2/3 female) Onset: Early adulthood, typically between 20 and 24 |
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Specific Phobias
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Exaggerated, unrealistic/irrational fear of a specific situation, activity, or object
Anxiety and/or fear when thinking about confronting the object |
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Origins of specific Phobias
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Origins
Some fears are biologically based Genetic predisposition to reactivity/sensitivity Learning (personal, observation) |
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(Obsessions & Compulsions) |
Obsessions – recurrent, intrusive, anxiety-producing thoughts, images, or urges that cannot be eliminated. Obsessions are in your head, they happen over and over, interfere with other thoughts, can’t eliminated them-reason your way out.
Compulsions – repetitive behaviors or mental acts that one is driven to perform, typically in response to obsession, and according to rigid rules |
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Mood Disorders
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Extreme and prolonged disturbances in mood and emotionality
1.Major Depressive Disorder 2.Bipolar Disorder |
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Manic Episode
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Abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least 1 week, causing impairment
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Hypomanic & Mixed Episodes
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Hypomanic Episodes
Less severe version of manic episode Does not cause clinically significant impairment Lasts at least 4 days Mixed Episodes Simultaneously meet criteria for Manic and Major Depressive Episode Nearly every day for at least 1 week |
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Dysthymic Disorder
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Fewer, milder symptoms than MDD
Minimum of 2 symptoms: Change in appetite, sleep changes, low energy/fatigue, low self-esteem, poor concentration, feelings of hopelessness Longer lasting episodes (at least 2 yrs) No manic, hypomanic, or mixed episodes |
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Major Depressive Disorder
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No manic, hypomanic, or mixed episodes
Risk begins at early teens and steadily increases Risk becoming greater Periods of remission tend to decrease over time if recurrent |
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Bipolar Disorders (2 types)
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Chronic, alternate indefinitely
Type I At least one major depressive and one manic or mixed episode Average age of onset: 18 yrs Type II At least one major depressive and hypomanic episode No manic or mixed episode Average age of onset: 19 to 22 yrs |
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Biological Causes of Mood Disorders
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-Heredity/Genetics
First degree relatives= higher likelihood *Especially strong for BPD -Biochemical Imbalance/Regulation -Serotonin deficiency -Cortisol: High amounts=depression |
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Biological Causes of Mood Disorders
-Biochemical Imbalance/Regulation |
Norepinepherine: low =depression
Dopamine: low= depression, high = mania |
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Biological Causes of Mood Disorder
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Anatomical differences in amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus
Depression: underactive prefrontal cortex, overactive amygdala, neuron death (fewer neurons), shrinking hippocampus Increased metabolic activity (energy consumption during mania |
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Neurotransmitters implicate in anxiety disorders
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GABA deficiencies.
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Psychosocial components of Depression
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Mood disturbance = genetic predisposition + stressor + personality + cognition + behavior
Psychodynamic: internalized anger at someone else manifests as self-criticism and guilt Behavioral: Lack of sufficient positive reinforcement Learned helplessness – exposed to aversive situation that cannot control/avoid =hopelessness |
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Cognitive Components of Depression
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Cognitive sets - negative pattern of viewing the world
Negative views of self (e.g., inadequate, deficient) Negative interpretations of ongoing experiences Belief in future difficulties/suffering Explanatory Style Belief that have no control over events Attribute failures to internal, stable, global causes (e.g., stupidity) Rumination=lengthy conemplation of things Attentional bias – continue to perceive the world consistent with mood |
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Dissociation
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feeling detached/disconnected from one’s experience of his/her self or surroundings
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Dissociative Disorders
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disorders characterized by sudden loss of memory or identity
Often the result of trauma Escape conflicts/trauma by separating from the experience |
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Dissociative Amnesia
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inability to recall important personal information due to psychological stress
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Dissociative Fugue
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amnesia + flight
Assumption of new identity |
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Dissociative Identity Disorder
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Presence of 2 or more simultaneously coexisting identities
Each identity is distinct Unique memories, behaviors, relationships Typically shift when under stress Women > Men High rates of sexual abuse |
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Schizophrenia
define psychosis |
Psychotic disorder characterized by highly disturbed thought processes, perceptions, speech, emotions, and behaviors
Psychosis – break with reality Positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms Later onset and better prognosis less severe consequences for women |
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Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia
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exaggeration or distortion of the normal
Hallucinations – sensory experiences in the absence of real stimuli (auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory) Delusions – false beliefs that are not culturally appropriate |
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Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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Behavioral deficits – decrease in normal functions
Avolition Alogia Flat affect |
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Avolition
Alogia Anhedonia Flat affect |
Avolition – inability to initiate and persist in activities
Alogia – relative absence of speech Due to disordered thought processes Anhedonia – lack of pleasure or indifference to typically pleasurable activities Flat affect – apparently emotionless demeanor Lack of inflection in speech, immobile facial expressions, lack of obvious emotional reaction |
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Disorganized Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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Disorganized/incoherent speech
Jumping from topic to topic, or sentences don’t make sense Disorganized/inappropriate behavior or affect Inappropriate emotional/affective responses Disordered movement (e.g., unusual mannerisms, facial expressions, movements) Strange behaviors |
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5 Types of Schizophrenia
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1. Paranoid
2. Disorganized:Bizarre and disorganized behaviors 3. Catatonic:frozen, rigid, odd, or excessive/agitated 4, Undifferentiated:Don’t fit neatly into preceding three categories 5. Residual:Have at least one schizophrenic episode but no longer exhibit symptoms |
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Neurotransmitter of Schizophrenia
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Excessive stimulation of dopamine receptors
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Diathesis-Stress Model
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predisposition + environmental stress
The fancy way of saying that in order for a disorder to arise you must have 1. Biological predisposition 2. Environmental trigger to ignite it. |
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Personality Disorders (3 cateogories)
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Chronic, inflexible, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that impair one’s ability to function or causes distress
1.Odd/eccentric 2.Dramatic/emotionally problematic 3.Chronic-fearfulness/avoidant |
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Paranoid personality disorder
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-Pervasive unfounded distrust and suspicion
-Perceived attacks/hidden meanings |
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Schizoid personality disorder
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-Detachment from social relationships
-Limited emotions in interpersonal situations -Viewed as cold removed from relationships |
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Schizotypal personality disorder
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-Psychotic-like symptoms like schizophrenia but not quite there
-Odd beliefs and thought patterns -Suspicion -Hostility |
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Antisocial
PD |
-Disregard for and violation of the rights of others, intrusive, exploitive,
-Disregard for social norms -Self-indulgent, irresponsible, aggressive |
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Borderline
PD |
-Emotionally unstable, impulsive, unpredictable
-Irritable, anxious -Unstable self-image |
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Narcissistic
PD |
-Unrealistic sense of self-importance,
-Manipulative, -Unable to take criticism -Lack empathy |
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Histrionic
PD |
Attention seeking
Emotionally over-reactive |
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Avoidant
PD |
-Low self-esteem
-Extremely sensitive to opinions of others/rejection -Avoid social interaction |
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Dependent
PD |
-Lack of self-confidence
-Cling to stronger personalities (decision making) -Unreasonable fear of abandonment |
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Obsessive-Compulsive
PD |
-Obsessive perfectionism
-Rigidity, rules, black and white thinking -Preoccupation with details can prevent completion of tasks |
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Health Psychology
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focuses on the role of psychology in establishing and maintaining health, and preventing and treating illness
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Behavioral Medicine
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interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavioral and biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness.
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Stress
Acute vs. Chronic |
the response of individuals to circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities (i.e., stressors)
Acute Stress – momentary stress that occurs in response to life experiences Chronic Stress – stress that persists continuously |
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Three Phase Response Cycle
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Alarm Phase - Immediate sympathetic response, Body mobilizes to meet threat
Resistance Phase - Still trying to fight off danger, Body becoming vulnerable due to extended sympathetic response Exhaustion Phase - Persistent stress exhausts the individual, Very vulnerable to illness |
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Optimism vs. Pessimism
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Optimists better health, better immune system
Pessimists create stress and bad moods, tend towards self-destructive activities, substance use, other risky behaviors |
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Locus of Control
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general expectation of whether you can control the things that happen to you
Internal better able to handle stressors because feel they can predict/control them, better immune system, more likely to take steps to improve health Externals feel that they cannot predict/control outcomes, trouble coping with stressors |
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Hostility
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Proneness to anger and hostility (stressor) risk for heart disease
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Emotional Inhibition in relation to liklihood of ilness
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Suppressors – tend to deny feelings of anxiety, anger, or fear
Prolonged inhibition of emotions requires a lot of energy Inability to share traumatic events Trying to forget/block actually brings thought to the forefront become more attached to emotion you are trying to block out, more stress |
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Coping Strategies
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-Reduce physiological arousal/tension (e.g., meditation, relaxation training)
Use cognitive abilities to cope with a situation (may not be able to solve problem) -Looking outward |
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Types of Therapies
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Biological and Psychotherapy
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Biological Therapies
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Drug Therapy
Surgery ECT |
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Psychotherapy
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Psychodynamic therapy
Behavior therapy Cognitive therapy Family therapy Group therapy |
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Problems with Drug Treatments
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Placebo effect
High relapse & dropout rate Dosage problems Long-term risks Overprescription Don’t deal with non-biological roots of problems |
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Psychosurgery
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Surgical procedures performed on brain tissue to alleviate psychological disorders
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Prefrontal Lobotomy
Lesioning |
Prefrontal Lobotomy – sever fibers that connect the frontal lobe (higher thought) with hypothalamus/thalamus (emotion)
Reduces impulsivity, anger, guilt, intense/sever emotionality Intellectual & emotional flatness, inability to plan, childlike actions destroyed who the person was. OLD SCHOOL! Lesioning – very precise severing typically in limbic system what we do now. Very specific areas of the brain |
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ECT
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Muscle relaxants + anesthesia + electric current (75 to 100 volts)
Last resort – don’t respond to other treatments |
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Psychodynamic Therapy
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Emphasis on the unconscious mind, and the role of early childhood experiences
Psychoanalysis (Freud) – extensive questioning, probing, analyzing – bring unconscious conflicts to the surface |
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examples of Psychodynamic therapy
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Free association – spontaneous flow of thought
Resistance – topics does not want to discuss Dream analysis Transference – feelings toward the therapist reflect underlying conflicts |
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Behavior Therapies
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Focus on modifying observable behaviors
Principles of learning (operant/classical conditioning) |
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Types of Behavior Therapies
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Exposure therapies – confront object or situation that causes anxiety
Counterconditioning (e.g., systematic desensitization, flooding, aversion therapy) Contingency Management – changing behavior by modifying behaviors Positive reinforcement, shaping, extinction strategies |
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Social-Learning Therapies
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Imitation of models - acquire behaviors by observing appropriate behaviors & seeing rewards (mimic)
Social Skills Training – teach appropriate social skills Learn what, how, and when to do behave Behavioral rehearsal (visualization) |
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Cognitive Therapies
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Identify and change thought processes and/or patterns that contribute to behaviors (cognitive restructuring)
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Types of cognitive therapies
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Rational-Emotive Therapy – changing irrational beliefs (should, ought, must) that cause undesirable, highly charged, emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety) through rational examination
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Change false beliefs and self-defeating thoughts Change behaviors - reinforcement Self-efficacy – belief that can master situation and produce positive outcomes |
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Humanistic Therapies
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Emphasize self-healing abilities and personal growth
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types of hymanistic therapies
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Client-Centered Therapy
Unconditional positive regard, empathy, authenticity improve self-concept Encourage self reflection through active listening & reflective speech, non-directive Gestalt Therapy – challenge/confront client to take control of life Express pent up feelings and address previous conflicts carried into new relationships |
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Group Therapy
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Treat individuals who share a psychological problem in a group setting
Individual therapies remove client from normal social relationships Dealing within social context may improve effectiveness |
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Family Therapies
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Family members affect each other
Behaviors are developed and maintained in the family social setting Changing behaviors requires changing dynamic of whole family Identify problematic social influences, relationships – replace “dysfunctional” structures with more effective structures |
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What factors contribute to the effectiveness of treatments?
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1. good relationship with counselor
2. cooperation with patient-they have to want to get better 3. bodily chemistry with the drug treatment |