Psychology Exam 2 Review

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Learning

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is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

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Definition of learning

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a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

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Classical conditioning

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involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex.

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Pavlov

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Russian physiologist, who elucidated classic conditioning, contributed to psychology: isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through scientific procedures

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

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unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. Pavlov: food

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

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unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus, Pavlov: salivation

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Neutral Stimulus (NS)

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could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response, Pavlov: the tone

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Observational learning

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higher animals, especially evolved humans, learn through observing and imitating others, this comes about early in life. Bandura’s Bobo doll study indicated that children learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

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Extinction recovery

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when an unconditioned stimulus (food) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (tone), the conditioned response (salivation) starts to decrease and at some point desists

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Spontaneous recovery

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after a rest period an extinguished conditioned response (salivation) restores

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Generalization and discrimination

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generalization: tendency to respond to stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus

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Discrimination

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the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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Romantic red

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women are found to be more alluring and sexy if portrayed in red

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Operant conditioning

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procedure in which reinforces guide behavior closer towards target behavior through successive approximations

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B.F. Skinner

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developed operant chamber or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning. Operant chamber: comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain food.

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Thorndike’s Law of Effect

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rewarded behavior is more likely to recur

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Shaping

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Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that would shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct behaviors.

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positive reinforcement

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add a desirable stimulus like getting a hug or receiving a paycheck

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negative reinforcement

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remove an aversive stimulus, like fastening seatbelt to turn off beeping

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Punishment (positive and negative)

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an aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows (ways to decrease behavior) positive punishment: administer an aversive stimulus like spanking or a parking ticket

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Negative punishment

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withdraw a desirable stimulus like time-out form privileges (such as time with friends)

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Learned aggression

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violent tendencies that result in viewing violent acts

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Intrinsic motivation

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the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

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Extrinsic motivation

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the desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

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Memory

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learning that has persisted over time

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Definition of memory

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learning that has persisted over time

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Sensory

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stage of memory associated with external events (sensations) attend to and encode important info

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Short-term (working)

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stage of memory associated with rehearsing and pondering

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Long-term memory

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stage of memory associated retrieval

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Encoding

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decryption that occurs through both conscious and unconscious processing,

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Storage

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retaining information

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Retrieval

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extracting information

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Automatic processing

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space, time, frequency, well-learned information/

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Effortful processing

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rehearsal, the spacing effect, testing effect, serial position effect

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Spacing

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a way to retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time

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Mass practice

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quick fast learning, cramming

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Serial position effect

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we remember (words, names, dates, etc) at the beginning and end of lists more than those in the middle

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Visual encoding

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memory storing of picture images

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Acoustic encoding

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memory storing of sounds

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Semantic encoding

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memory storing of meanings

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Mnemonics as a memory device

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memory aids, that often include vivid imagery

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Chunking as a memory device

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units

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Iconic memory

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Memory for visual stimuli

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Echoic memory

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Memory for sound

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Flashbulb memory

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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Recall

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a measure of memory in which you must retrieve the info learned earlier, like a fill in the blank or essay exam

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Recognition

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a measure of memory in which you only need identify items previously learned, such as multiple choices

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Relearning

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a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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Mood congruent memory

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memory tied to stressful, happy, and/or emotional events

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State-dependent memory

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memory associated while recalling an environment

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Déjà vu

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is the experience of feeling sure that one has already witnessed or experienced a current situation

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False memories

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the recollection of an event, or the details of an event, that did not occur.

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Thinking

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refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding remembering and communicating.

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Concepts

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the mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs, but their common features define the concept of a chair

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Prototypes

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form concepts with mental images or typical examples (bird-mental image)

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Algorithms

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are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms.

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Heuristics

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Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.

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Insight

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a sudden, novel realizations of a solution to a problem, human and animals have insight

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Fixation and functional fixedness

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inability to see a problem form a fresh perspective impedes problem solving/ functional fixedness: cannot think beyond its normal function

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Representative heuristics

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Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype.

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Availability heuristics

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allows for increasesd the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability.

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Overconfidence

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is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

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Intuition

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Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our _______, seldom using systematic reasoning.

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Framed (Framing)

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Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed.