Psychology Chapters 8,9,& 10

Front 1

Freud

Back 1

• Father of psychoanalysis
-Id, ego, superego

Front 2

Id

Back 2

seeks immediate gratification; operates on the pleasure principle.

Front 3

Ego

Back 3

executive, conscious portion of personality. It attempts to balance demands of the id and superego; operates on the reality principle.

Front 4

Superego

Back 4

contains moral and idealized standards of behavior (cultural specific); morality principle.

Front 5

Defense Mechanisms

Back 5

• Processes that distort reality and protect us from anxiety.
-e.g. repressed memories

Front 6

Repression

Back 6

thought to be the most common defense mechanism. Events are unknowingly placed into the unconscious.
-Automatic; can’t cause anxiety because we aren’t aware of them.

Front 7

Denial

Back 7

Refusal to accept reality.
-“ I didn’t steal, I just borrowed it.”

Front 8

Projection

Back 8

Attributing unacceptable thoughts/desires to others.
-“You’re a thief!” OR “You’re cheating on me!”

Front 9

Rationalization

Back 9

Creating (bogus) justifications for your actions.
-“It’s not bad to shoplift because companies make enough money anyway.”

Front 10

Psychosexual Stage Theory

Back 10

Five stages…three most important are
1.Oral
2.Anal
3.Phallic
• Appropriate level of stimulation needed at each stage; too much or too little leads to fixation.

Front 11

Oral

Back 11

1st stage of psychosexual stage theory
-mouth is center of fixation
-Birth-1.5 years; involves biting, chewing, sucking.

Front 12

Anal

Back 12

2nd stage of psychosexual stage theory
-anus is center of fixation
-1.5-3 years; activity centers around toilet training.

Front 13

Phallic

Back 13

3rd stage of psychosexual stage theory
-genitals fixated upon
-3-6 years; genital stimulation, sexual and moral dev.

Front 14

Fixations

Back 14

• When a portion of energy remains in an earlier stage of development.
-Involves an exaggerated concern with X.

Front 15

Oral Fixation

Back 15

Smoking, gum chewing, drinking.

Front 16

Anal Fixation

Back 16

(retentive or expulsive)-determined by reaction to toilet training; either overly tidy or overly messy

Front 17

Phallic Fixation

Back 17

sexual deviance
-Oedipus or Electra complex occurs here.

Front 18

Psychosexual Criticisms

Back 18

• Difficult to test scientifically.
-Much of it is not testable or falsifiable.
• Little evidence that proposed stages actually exist.
• Overly focused on sexual conflicts.
-Oedipus conflict seen as crucial for male dev.
• Overly focused on male development; contains sexist elements (e.g. penis envy)

Front 19

Humanists

Back 19

-Emphasized free will.
-Rejected deterministic view of behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
-Focused on positive causes of personality development (personal growth)

Front 20

Abraham Maslow

Back 20

-father of humanism; studied healthy people to observe their development.
• Emphasized reaching one’s full potential.
• Proposed a hierarchy of needs.
-Begins with basic needs and ascends to “self-actualization”
• Self-actualization: the fullest realization of one’s potential; being all that you can be.
-Accept themselves, others and the world as they are; have a need for privacy and only a few close friends. Have “peak experiences”

Front 21

Carl Rogers

Back 21

-humanist
• Also emphasized self-actualization
• Focused on our need for positive regard
• Coined “unconditional positive regard”
-Acceptance or approval without conditions; important that parents provide this to children.
• Developed client-centered therapy (covered in chapter 10)
• Lack of unconditional positive regard results in conditions of worth.
-Acceptance/approval only given for certain behaviors and attitudes.
• Teaches us what others want us to be.
-Ideal self versus real self.
• Anxiety/defensiveness (and other issues) arise from mismatches between the ideal self and real self.

Front 22

Trait Theories

Back 22

• Propose that personality can be defined by a (small) number of traits or dimensions.

Front 23

Traits

Back 23

-internally based, relatively stable aspects of an individual’s personality.
• Too few traits = you can’t adequately explain personality.
• Too many traits = they start to overlap.

Front 24

The Big Five (McRae & Costa)

Back 24

• Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
• Remember OCEAN
• Supported across genders, cultures, and languages.
• Approximately 50% heritable.

Front 25

Projective Tests

Back 25

A series of images; test takers create a description or story for each. Mostly used in clinical practice.

Front 26

Personality Inventories MMPI-2

Back 26

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (second edition)
• Most widely used test in the world
• 567 simple statements
-Ex: “ I feel like breaking things”
• Response is: true, false, or cant say
• Measures abnormal personality; includes scaled for 10 different disorders (schizophrenia/ depression).

Front 27

Personality Inventories: NFC

Back 27

• Need for cognition (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982).
-The extent to which individuals enjoy engaging in (or are inclined toward) effortful cognitive tasks.
• 18 simple statements
-Ex: “Thinking is not my idea of fun”
• Response is: agreement/disagreement with statements.
• Predicts susceptibility to persuasion, use of heuristics, and contextual cues etc.

Front 28

Rorschach Inkblots Test

Back 28

-Series of 10 ambiguous images; no real meaning.
-Similarities across interpretations used to assess issues.

Front 29

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Back 29

- 31 ambiguous images (10 used at any one time). Recurring themes thought to reflect test takers own issues.

Front 30

Kurt Lewin

Back 30

Founding Father of Social Psychology
• B=f(P,E)
• Applied Gestalt theory to social perceptions.

Front 31

Social Cognition

Back 31

How people interpret/remember social information to make judgements and decisions.

Front 32

Schemas guide attention and memory

Back 32

• Information that is consistent with our schemas is easier to recall than information that is inconsistent with our schemas.

Front 33

Accessibility

Back 33

The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds.

Front 34

Priming

Back 34

is the process by which recent experience increase the accessibility of the schema.

Front 35

The Self Fulfilling Prophecy

Back 35

-People have an expectation about what another person is like
-Influence how they act toward that person
-Causes that person to behave consistently with people’s original expectations

Front 36

False Consensus

Back 36

The tendency to overestimate the communality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.

Front 37

False Uniqueness

Back 37

The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviors.

Front 38

Automatic Believing: Controlled Unbelieving

Back 38

• Gilberts (1991) theory of automatic believing.
Automatic:Initial acceptance of information
Controlled:
-Assess truthfulness of accepted
-Unaccept if necessary

Front 39

Social Perception

Back 39

• The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about others.

Front 40

Social Perception is influenced by factors associated with

Back 40

-The perceiver
-The person being perceives
-The situation in which social perception occurs.

Front 41

Nonverbal Behavior

Back 41

• Intentionally or unintentionally
-Without words
• Facial expressions
• Tones of voice
• Gesture

Front 42

Nonverbal Behavior is Used for

Back 42

-Expressing emotion
-Conveying attitudes
-Communicating One’s Personality Traits
-Facilitating Verbal Communication

Front 43

Facial Expressions of emotion

Back 43

-Encode
-Decode

Front 44

Encode

Back 44

(express) To express or emit nonverbal behavior.

Front 45

Decode

Back 45

(Interpret) To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express.

Front 46

Affect Blends

Back 46

A facial expression where one part of the face is registering one emotion and another part of the face is registering a different emotion.

Front 47

Display Rules

Back 47

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display.

Front 48

Emblems

Back 48

nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture.

Front 49

Attribution Theory

Back 49

A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.

Front 50

Fritz Heider

Back 50

The father of Attribution Theory

Front 51

Internal Attribution

Back 51

-Attitude, character, or personality

Front 52

External Attribution

Back 52

The situation

Front 53

Hewstone & Fincham (1996)

Back 53

-Marital satisfaction and explanations for negative events
-Behavior to explain: She was late
Dissatisfied Couples
 Offer internal attribution
“She’s late because she doesn’t care about me.” Satisfied Couples
-Offer external attribution
“She’s late because of heavy traffic”

Front 54

Correspondance Bias

Back 54

-The tendency to think people’s behavior corresponds to their disposition.
-Gilbert, 1998b

Front 55

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

Back 55

Tendency to overestimate dispositional factors
-Tendency to underestimate situational factors
-Heider, 1958

Front 56

Perceptual Salience

Back 56

the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people’s attention.

Front 57

Spotlight Effect

Back 57

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which our actions and appearance are salient to others.

Front 58

Self-serving Attributions

Back 58

-Taking credit for positive events (internal, dispositional) while blaming negative events to external causes (situational).

Front 59

Self Perception Theory

Back 59

• The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs.
o Ex: Forgetting that you took cold medicine and then inferring that your aroused state is due to frustration with spouse.

Front 60

Misattribution of Arousal

Back 60

is the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do.

Front 61

The Over-justification Effect

Back 61

• The tendency to believe that a behavior was extrinsically (not intrinsically) motivated as external incentives increase.

Front 62

Intrinsic Motivation

Back 62

is engaging in an activity for the pure enjoyment of the activity itself.

Front 63

Extrinsic Motivation

Back 63

is engaging an activity to gain external rewards or to avoid punishment.

Front 64

Social Comparison

Back 64

is the process of evaluating our own opinions, abilities, or performance by comparing ourselves to others.

Front 65

Lateral Social Comparison

Back 65

involves seeking similar others to compare to.

Front 66

Upward Social Comparison

Back 66

comparing ourselves to those who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability.

Front 67

Downward Social Comparison

Back 67

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are on a particular trait or ability.

Front 68

Cognitive Dissonance in current use

Back 68

• FDA Warning labels.
• Some evidence suggests this will work (e.g., Glock & Kneer, 2009)
• Reactance to overt persuasion is common.

Front 69

Reducing Cognitive Dissonance `

Back 69

• Change your inconsistent behavior
• Change your inconsistent attitude or belief
• Justify your inconsistent behavior/attitude by adding new cognitions

Front 70

Post-decision dissonance

Back 70

o Dissonance after making a decision
o Every decision has good and bad
o Irrevocability increases dissonance.

Front 71

Justification of Effort

Back 71

o The tendency of ind. to increase liking for something difficult to obtain.

Front 72

Conformity

Back 72

• A change in one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people.

Front 73

Informational Social Influence

Back 73

o When a situation is ambiguous, we use others’ behavior as a source of information to guide our behavior.
o We assume others’ interpretation of the situation is more correct than ours.
o Usually leads to private acceptance

Front 74

Private Acceptance

Back 74

• Conforming out of a genuine belief that what others are doing or saying is right.

Front 75

Auto Kinetic Effect

Back 75

after fixating your gaze on a stationary point of light in a dark room, the light will appear to move, even though it remains stationary. It will appear to move more or less for different people.
o Not knowing this phenomenon, Ps were asked to estimate how much the light moved.

Front 76

Private Acceptance

Back 76

changing behavior with genuine belief that behavior is right; long term change.

Front 77

Public Compliance

Back 77

changing behavior without necessarily believing behavior is right; short-term change.

Front 78

Contagion

Back 78

the rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd.

Front 79

People are more likely to conform if the situation is...

Back 79

• Ambiguous (most critical)
o When you are unsure of correct behavior.
• A Crisis
o Time limited; Fear and panic lower capacity to resist conformity.
• Experts
o Likely to be used as a guide when situation ambiguous.
• Goal to be correct; Leads to private acceptance.

Front 80

Normative Social Influence

Back 80

the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them.

Front 81

Public Compliance

Back 81

-not private acceptance
• Conforming publicly, without necessarily believing in what you are doing.

Front 82

Asch Line Studies

Back 82

• 8 Participants a group.
• Each provided a verbal judgment of which line was equal to the standard.
• Correct answer was obvious (unambiguous).
o Informational social influence should not apply
• Correct answers given first 3 trials.
• Other 7 participants (confederates) began giving wrong answer.
• All gave the same wrong answer.
• 76% of participants conformed at least once.
• 33% of trials resulted in conformity when the wrong answer was given.

Front 83

Obedience

Back 83

is conformity in response to a direct order from someone in authority.

Front 84

Milgrim’s Obedience Study (1963)

Back 84

• Most famous study in social psychology.
• Interested in why German people obeyed Hitler.
• Thought Americans would NOT obey in the same way.
• Purpose: “examine the effects of punishment on learning.”
• Learner: memorize a list of words.
• Shocks teach learner to do better when a mistake is made.
• 15-450 volt shocks.
• Learner was in the next room. Participant was teacher.
o Learner was a confederate.
• Shocks increased as the learner made additional mistakes.
• 75 volts – first cries heard.
o Ugh!
• Experimenter says: “It is absolutely essential that you continue.”
• Shocks increase, screams increase, experimenter’s insistence increases.
• 150 volts – learner complains that his heart is bothering him.

Front 85

Body Position and Tipping

Back 85

• Lynn & Mynier (1993)
• Squatting increased tips.
• Why?
-Eye contact
-Friendliness
-Closeness
-Submissiveness

Front 86

Four Criteria for Disorders

Back 86

1) Is the behavior/thought process atypical?
2) Is the behavior/thought process maladaptive?
Does it prevent the person from successfully functioning and adapting to life’s demands?
3) Is the behavior/thought process personally distressing or distressing to others?
4) Is the behavior/ thought process irrational?

Front 87

DSM IV

Back 87

• DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
-Published by American Psychological Association (APA)
-Lists the diagnostic criteria for each disorder
-Example: “You must see evidence for 5 of the following 9 criteria”

Front 88

Comorbidity

Back 88

-Two or more disordes may co-occur in the same person.
-Often, having one disorder predisposes you to have others as well.
-Example: A person could be depressed because a phobia makes social situations impossible

Front 89

Biopsychosocial model

Back 89

Disorders are an interaction between biological causes, psychological causes and social experiential factors.

Front 90

Schizophrenia

Back 90

• Schizophrenia is NOT multiple personalities!!!!
• Schizophrenia is characterized by loss of contact with reality and is often considered the most sever disorder.
-A psychotic disorder due to loss of reality.
• Typical onset begins in late teens to mid-30’s; approximately 1% of the population.

Front 91

Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Back 91

• Refer to something being added (active distortions of thought and behavior).
-Hallucinations: False perceptions; Hearing or otherwise experiencing events that did not occur.
-Auditory hallucinations most common
• Delusions: False beliefs
-Persecution, grandeur

Front 92

Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Back 92

• Refer to something being taken away (deficits resulting in removal or worsening of typical human functions).
-Lack of enjoyment of social interactions/ daily life
-Failure to begin/ sustain activities
-Flat affect=loss of emotion.
-Face doesn’t move; monotone voice

Front 93

Loose Associations

Back 93

are meaningful associations but they do not seem to be goal-directed.

Front 94

Diagnosing Schizophrenia

Back 94

• The presence (most of the time for at least a month) of at least two of the following:
-Hallucinations
-Delusions
-Disorganized speech
-Disorganized or catatonic behavior
-Any negative symptom (i.e. withdrawal)
• DSM-IV includes five subtypes.

Front 95

Neurotransmitter problems (Possible Cause of schizophrenia)

Back 95

-Too much dopamine in some parts of the brain
-Usually treat schizophrenia with drugs that block dopamine D2 receptors (antipsychotics)

Front 96

Genetics (Possible Cause of schizophrenia)

Back 96

Many genes identified that increase risk for schizophrenia (not just one)
-Close relatives of schizophrenia are more likely to also be schizophrenic.

Front 97

Major Depressive Episode

Back 97

is characterized by three types of symptoms (must be present for at least two weeks):
-Affective: depressed mood or lack of interest in social activities.
-Cognitive: worthlessness/guilt, hopelessness, indecisiveness/concentration, suicidal ideation.
-Somatic: loss of appetite, excessive sleeping or insomnia, lack of energy, sluggishness.

Front 98

Affective

Back 98

depressed mood or lack of interest in social activities.

Front 99

Cognitive

Back 99

worthlessness/guilt, hopelessness, indecisiveness/concentration, suicidal ideation.

Front 100

Somatic

Back 100

loss of appetite, excessive sleeping or insomnia, lack of energy, sluggishness.

Front 101

Must have 5 of the following symptoms to be a major depressive episode

Back 101

-Sad depressed mood (most of the day everyday)*
-Loss of interest/pleasure in usual activities*
-Difficulty sleeping or sleeping all the time
-Shift in activity level
-Poor appetite and weight loss or increased appetite and weight gain
-Loss of energy
-Negative self concept
-Difficult concentrating
-Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
-Must last more than 2 weeks

Front 102

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Back 102

a person explains events in terms of causes that are internal (their own fault), stable (here to stay), and global (applies to all aspects of their life).

Front 103

Manic Episodes

Back 103

• A manic episode is a period of at least a week of abnormally elevated mood in which the person experiences such symptoms as inflated self-esteem with grandiose delusions, a decreased need for sleep, constant talking, distractibility, restlessness, and poor judgment.
• Patients often resist treatment to keep their manic phase… but it is also maladaptive.

Front 104

Bipolar I Disorder

Back 104

the person has both major manic and depressive episodes.

Front 105

Bipolar II Disorder

Back 105

- the person has full-blown depressive episodes, but the manic episodes are milder.
• Affects about 1% of population.
• Strong genetic connection (70% concordance rate for identical twins).

Front 106

Biological Predispositions

Back 106

Certain associations (e.g. taste→ sickness) are easily learned; others (e.g. taste→electric shock) are difficult.

Front 107

Agoraphobia

Back 107

A fear of being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult.

Front 108

Panic Attacks

Back 108

Sudden attacks of fear
-Many occur when faced with something dreaded, like giving a speech.
-Other attacks occur without any apparent reason

Front 109

Panic Disorder

Back 109

Having frequent panic attacks
-Different from GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder) where anxiety is constant

Front 110

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Back 110

• High anxiety without any clear cause for 6+ months
-Accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms
-Restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, & sleep disturbance.
• May be related to a biochemical dysfunction in the brain involving GABA (a major inhibitory neurotransmitter).
-Failure to release GABA results in prolonged feelings of anxiety.

Front 111

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Back 111

• Recurrent obsessions and/or compulsions perceived as excessive or unreasonable.
-Impair normal functioning