Psychology Chapter 3

Front 1

Theoretical Framework

Back 1

Systematic way of organising and explaining observations. Hypothesis that flows from the theory or from an important question.

Front 2

Standardised Procedure

Back 2

Procedure that is the same for all participants except where variation is introduced to test a hypothesis.

Front 3

Generalisability

Back 3

Sample that is representative of the population. Procedure that is sensible and relevant to circumstances outside the laboratory

Front 4

Objective Measurement

Back 4

Measures that are reliable (produce consistent results). Measures that are valid (that assess the dimensions they purport to assess)

Front 5

Variables

Back 5

are phenomena that differ or change across circumstances or individuals; they can be either continuous or categorical.

Front 6

Internal Validity

Back 6

A valid design

Front 7

External Validity

Back 7

Applicability to situations outside the laboratory.

Front 8

Experimental Research Methods

Back 8

Manipulation of variables to assess cause and effect.
Advantages - Demonstrates casual relationships. Replicability: study can be repeated to see if the same findings emerge. Maximises control over relevant variables.
Potential Limitations: Generalisability outside the laboratory. Some complex phenomena cannot be readily tested using pure experimental methods.

Front 9

Case Study

Back 9

In-depth observation of a small number of cases.
A- Describes psychological processes as they occur in individual cases. Allows study of complex phenomena not easily reproduced experimentally. Provides data that can be useful in framing hypotheses.
PL: Generalisability to the population. Replicability: study may not be repeatable. Researcher bias. Cannot establish causation.

Front 10

Naturalistic Observation

Back 10

In-depth observation of a phenomenon as it occurs in nature.
A- Reveals phenomena as they exists outside the laboratory. Allows study of complex phenomena not easily reproduced.
PL: Observer effects: the presence of an observer may alter the behaviour of the participants.

Front 11

Survey Research

Back 11

Asking people questions about their attitudes, behaviour etc.
A: Reveals attitudes or self-reported behaviours of a large sample of individuals. Allow quantification of attitudes or behaviours.
PL: Self-report bias: people may not be able to report honestlyor accurately. Cannot establish causation.

Front 12

Correlational

Back 12

Examines the extent to which two or more variables are related and can be used to predict one another.
A: Reveals relationships among variables as they exist outside the laboratory. Allows quantification of relationships among variables.
PL: Cannot establish causation.

Front 13

Steps to conducting as experiment

Back 13

Step 1; Framing a hypothesis - Predicting the relationships among two or more variables.
Step 2; Operationalising variables - Converting abstract concepts into testable form.
Step 3; Developing a standardised procedure - Setting up experimental and control conditions. Attending to demand characteristics, attending to researcher bias.
Step 4; Selecting and assigning participants - Randomly assigning participants to different conditions.
Step 5; Applying statistical techniques to the data - Describing the data and determining the likelihood that differences between the conditions reflect causality or chance.
Step 6; Drawing Conclusions - Evaluating whether or not the data support the hypothesis, suggesting future studies to address limitations and new questions raised by the study.

Front 14

Neurons

Back 14

Nerve Cells

Front 15

Dendrites

Back 15

Branch-like extensions of the neuron

Front 16

Nucleus

Back 16

The brain of the operation

Front 17

Axon

Back 17

A long extension from the cell body that transmits information to other neurons.

Front 18

Sensory Neurons

Back 18

Carries sensory information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Front 19

Motor Neurons

Back 19

Transmits commands from the brain to the glands and muscles of the body

Front 20

Communication from one neuron to another

Back 20

1. Resting State - Na+ cannot enter, or is actively pumped out of, the neuron; the cell is negatively charged.
2. Depolarisation - Na+ enters dendrites and cell body, making the cell less negatively charged.
3. Graded Potential - Change in cell voltage is passed down dendrites and cell body.
4. Action Potential - If the change in axon voltage surpasses a threshold, the axon suddenly lets in a surge of NA+
5. Neurotransmitter release - The action potential causes terminal buttons to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
6. Chemical message transmitted - Depending on the facilitating or inhibitory nature of the neurotransmitter released, the voltage of the cell membrane receiving the message becomes depolarised or hyperpolarised, and the process repeats.

Front 21

Glutamate

Back 21

Excitation of neurons throughout the nervous system

Front 22

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Back 22

Inhibition of neurons in the brain

Front 23

Dopamine

Back 23

Emotional arousal, pleasure and reward; voluntary movement; attention.

Front 24

Serotonin

Back 24

Sleep and emotional arousal; aggression; pain regulation; mood regulation

Front 25

Acetylcholine

Back 25

Learning and Memory

Front 26

Endorphins and Enkephalins

Back 26

Pain relief and elevation of mood.

Front 27

Endocrine System

Back 27

A collection of glands that control various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones.

Front 28

Pituitary Gland

Back 28

An oval structure in the brain that is about the size of a pea, often described as the 'master gland'. because many of the hormones it releases stimulate and regulate the other glands. The pituitary gland is connected more directly to the central nervous system than any of the other endoctrine glands.

Front 29

Thyroid Gland

Back 29

Located in the neck, releases hormones that control growth and metabolism. The thyroid gland also affects energy levels and mood

Front 30

Adrenal Gland

Back 30

Located above the kidneys. These glands secrete adrenalin and other hormones during emergencies. Another endocrine gland, the pancreas, is located near the stomach and produces hormones that control blood-sugar level.

Front 31

Gonads

Back 31

Endocrine glands that influence sexual development and behaviour. The gonads, or testes, are located in the testicles. The most important hormone they produce is testosterone.

Front 32

Estrogens

Back 32

Hormones produced by the female gonads (ovaries).

Front 33

Central Nervous System

Back 33

Consists of the brain and spinal chord.

Front 34

Peripheral Nervous System

Back 34

Consists of neurons that convey messages to and from the central nervous system.

Front 35

Somatic Nervous System

Back 35

Transmits sensory information to the central nervous system and carries out its motor commands.

Front 36

Autonomic Nervous System

Back 36

Conveys information to and from internal bodily structures that carry out basic life processes such as digestion and respiration.

Front 37

Sympathetic Nervous System

Back 37

Typically activated in responses to threats. Its job is to ready the body for fight or flight.

Front 38

The hindbrain

Back 38

Directly above the spinal cord in humans. The medulla oblongata, the cerabellum,and parts of the reticular formation.

Front 39

Pons

Back 39

Involved with respiration , movement, walking, sleep and dreaming.

Front 40

Cerebellum

Back 40

Coordinates the fine muscle movement, balance, and some perception and cognition.

Front 41

Medulla

Back 41

Responsible for breathing, heartbeat, and other vital life functions.

Front 42

Midbrain

Back 42

Consists of the tectum and tegmentum.

Front 43

Tectum

Back 43

Includes structures involved in vision and hearing.

Front 44

Tegmentum

Back 44

Includes parts of the reticular formation and other neural structures, serves a variety of functions, many related to movement.

Front 45

Forebrain

Back 45

Involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behaviour processes.

Front 46

Hypothalamus

Back 46

Situated in the front of the midbrain. Helps to regulate behaviours ranging from eating and sleeping to sexual activity and emotional experience.

Front 47

Thalamus

Back 47

Set of nuclei located over above the hypothalamus. Processes sensory information as it arrives and transmits this information to higher brain centres.

Front 48

Limbic System

Back 48

Set of structures with diverse functions involving emotion, motivation, learning, and memory. The lymbic system includes the septal area, the amygdala, and the hippocampus.

Front 49

Amygdala

Back 49

Almond shaped structure involved in many emotional processes, especially learning and remembering emotionally significant events. Also regulates fear response.

Front 50

Hippocampus

Back 50

Particularly important for storing new information in memory so that the person can later consciously remember it.

Front 51

The Basal Ganglia

Back 51

Set of structures, including the putamen and caudate nucleus located near the thalamus and hypothalamus that are involved in a wide array of functions, particularly movement and judgements that require minimal conscious thought.

Front 52

Cerebral Cortex

Back 52

Consists of a 3mm thick layer of densely packed interneurons. Gray and interwoven. Performs three functions- it allows the flexible construction of of sequences of voluntary movements involved in activities such as changing a tyre or playing a piano.
Second- Permits subtle discrimination among among complex sensory patterns.
Third- Make possible symbolic thinking.

Front 53

Primary areas

Back 53

Process raw sensory information or initiate movement.

Front 54

Association areas

Back 54

Involved in cortex mental processes such as forming perceptions, ideas and plans.

Front 55

Cerebral Cortex

Back 55

Two symmetrical halves; separated by longitudinal fissure.

Front 56

Corpus Callosum

Back 56

Band of neural fibres that cronnects the right and left hemispheres.

Front 57

Occipital Lobes

Back 57

Located in the rear portion of the cortex, they are specialised for vision.

Front 58

Parietal lobes

Back 58

Located in front of the occipital lobes. They are involved in several functions, including the sense of touch, detecting movement, in the environment, located objects in space and experiencing one's own body as it moves through space.

Front 59

Somatosensory Cortex

Back 59

The primary area of the parietal lobe, it lies directly behind the central fissure, which divides the partietal lobe from the frontal lobe.

Front 60

Frontal lobes

Back 60

involved in a number of functions, including movement, attention, planning, social skills, abstract thinking, memory and some aspects of personality.

Front 61

Temporal lobes

Back 61

Located on the lower side portions of the cortex, are particularly important in hearing and language, although they have other functions as well.

Front 62

Wernicke's area

Back 62

located in the left temporal lobe, is important in language comprehension.