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224 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What did psychology begin as?
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An attempt to answer philosophical questions about human nature using methods from sciences such as physics and physiology.
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Who set up the first psychological laboratory and where?
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Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany
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What was Wundt trying to discover in his lab?
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How people sense and perceive the world around them
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What group believed consciousness to be made up of elements that could be combined to form different perceptions?
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structuralists
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The study of the structure of mind and behavior; the view that all human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events.
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structuralism
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Primary examination technique of structuralism
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introspection
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A technique for examining mental experiences that involves reporting one's conscious thoughts and feelings
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introspection
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Psychological approach influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection that suggests felt consciousness experience is always adapting and changing based on environment
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functionalism
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Who set up the first psychological laboratory in the united States??
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Edward Titchener
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Why did introspection fall into disfavor as a way to study consciousness?
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It is subjective, and could not be applied to studies of animals and children
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What group was most interested in how mental experiences and processes were adaptive for people?
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Functionalists
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Do present day psychologists take a functionalist or struturalist approach?
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They study both structure and function
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An approach to psychology that focuses on how physiological and biochemical processes produce psychological phenomenon
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Biological approach
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An approach to psychology that posits that our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors stem from the interaction of innate drives and society's restrictions on the expression of those drives.
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Psychodynamic approach
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The founder of a branch of psychodynamic psychology that includes concepts such as archetypes; the collective unconscious; synchronicity; introversion/extroversion; and the complex
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Carl Jung
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The part of an individual's unconscious that is inherited, evolutionarily developed, and common to all members of the species
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collective unconscious
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A universal, inherited, primitive, and symbolic representation of a particular experience or object
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archetype
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The therapeutic approach that views people as positive beings that tend to move toward becoming better people
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Carl Roger's Person-Centered Approach (also known as client-centered therapy)
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The theory that people are born with five genetically encoded needs: survival, love, power, freedom, and fun
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reality theory
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Therapeutic approach that posits that if a person can change the way they think about a situation, their behavior around that situation will change as well
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Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
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Psychologist who developed REBT
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Albert Ellis
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ABC theory of personality is specific to what type of therapy?
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Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
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What does the ABC theory of personality posit?
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It is a person's beliefs about an event that cause their response, not so much the event itself
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What do A, B, and C stand for in ABC theory?
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A = activating event
B = the person’s belief C = the person’s emotional and behavioral consequence or reaction |
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What does REBT see as the cause of most psychological disorders?
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self-blame
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The psychological perspective primarily concerned with observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationships of observable behavior to environmental stimuli
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behavioral approach
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What is the goal of behavior therapy?
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change the way clients think and react to situations and events through action-oriented methods
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Two most famous behavioral psychologists
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Pavlov and Skinner
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Which type of psychological research is most likely to study animals?
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Behaviorists
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The perspective on psychology that stresses human thought and the processes of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, expecting, solving problems, fantasizing, and consciousness
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cognitive approach
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Who developed cognitive theory?
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Aaron Beck
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If psychoanalysis focuses on unconscious beliefs, what does cognitive theory focus on?
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automatic thoughts and beliefs that lead to distress
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How do automatic thoughts differ from unconscious thoughts?
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They are spontaneous, yet conscious, thoughts that are representative of deep-seated beliefs
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Ways a person views the world, including important beliefs about people, events, and the environment
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cognitive schemas
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What is the ultimate goal of cognitive therapy?
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ridding the client of all distorted thought patterns
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A psychological model that emphasizes an individual's phenomenal world and inherent capacity for making rational choices and developing to maximum potential
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humanistic perspective
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Which branch of psychology sees people as fundamentally good?
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Humanists
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Psychologist who made the split from pure psychodynamic theory insisting that a person helps to create themselves and is not purely a creation of their early experiences
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Alfred Adler
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Theory that an individual begins to form their personality and approach to life during the first 6 years and the outcome is much more related to choices and responsibility rather than pure unconscious or conscious motivation
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Adlerian theory
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Philosophy that a person is responsible for their own destiny and their own sense of self
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existential philosophy
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Existential therapy's idea of the three ways in which a client can "be in the world"
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Umwelt
Mitwelt Eigenwelt |
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Basic goal of existential therapy
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authenticity - how a client can fully develop themselves and live up to their true potential
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Philosophical roots of existential or humanistic theory
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Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
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A school of psychology that maintains that psychological phenomena can be understood only when viewed as organized, structured wholes, not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements
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Gestalt psychology
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Psychologists who study various aspects of the human work environment, such as communication among employees, socialization or enculturation of workers, leadership, job satisfaction, stress and burnout
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Organizational psychologists
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American psychologist and social learning theorist who believes personality and situational variables are imortant in explaining behavior
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Walter Mischel
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American psychologist who is known for developing influential theories, including social learning theory and locus of control
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Julian Rotter
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German psychologist who defined Gestalt psychology, with the premise that the whole may be greater than the sum of its parts
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Max Wertheimer
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Psychologist known for his social learning theory, as well as influencing the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology.
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Albert Bandura
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American psychologist who is considered the founder of humanistic psychology, known for the "hierarchy of human needs"
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Abraham Maslow
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American behavioral psychologist who studied and defined operant conditioning
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BF Skinner
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One of the founders of humanistic psychology who developed the concepts of client-centered therapy and student-centered learning
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Carl Rogers
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American feminist psychologist who proposed a stage theory of moral development for women
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Carol Gilligan
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Developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development
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Erik Erikson
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Russian nobel prize winner who first described classical conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov
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Brain researchers who identified the pleasure center of the brain
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James Olds and Peter Milner
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Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, who influenced educational psychology greatly during his lifetime
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Jean Piaget
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The American psychologist who established the school of behaviorism after studying animals
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John B Watson
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British psychologist in the field of child development who pioneered attachment theory
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John Bowlby
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Post-renaissance thinker who influenced modern psychology with An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
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John Locke
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American psychologist best known for his "stages of moral development" theory
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Lawrence Kohlberg
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Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalytic method of psychiatry
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Sigmund Freud
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An English psychologist who pioneered several statistical approaches and developed the concept of a single intelligence factor (g)
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Charles Edward Spearman
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Established first U.S. experimental psychology lab, founded the APA, and started the American Journal of Psychology and Journal of Applied Psychology
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G. Stanley Hall
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American Gestalt psychologist and pioneer in social psychology who researched social conformity
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Solomon Asch
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American psychologist and physician who was a strong proponent of functionalism and radical empiricism
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William James
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German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory
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Erich Fromm
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American existential psychologist who introduced existential psychology into the U.S.
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Rollo May
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American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer, considered one of the founders of the philosophy of pragmatism and functional psychology
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John Dewey
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American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, and pragmatist, who is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology
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George Herbert Mead
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Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, founder of logotherapy and key figure in the existential therapy movement
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Viktor Frankl
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One of the founders of the field of Positive Adult Development
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Daniel Levinson
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Russian development psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development
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Lev Vygotsky
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British psychoanalyst who was the leading innovator in theorizing object relations theory
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Melanie Klein
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American developmental psychologist known for her development of Attachment Theory and work with "The Strange Situation"
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Mary Ainsworth
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Behaviorists
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John B Watson
Ivan Pavlov BF Skinner |
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Jean Piaget
Lawrence Kohlberg Erik Erikson John Bowlby Carol Gilligan Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby Melanie Klein Daniel Levinson |
Developmental theorists
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Existentialists
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Viktor Frankl
Rollo May |
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Functionalists
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William James
John Dewey |
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Humanistic psychologists
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Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers |
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Struturalists
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Edward B. Titchener
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Empiricists
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John Locke
William James John Dewey |
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Social Learning Theorists (cognitive-behavioral psychologists)
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Albert Bandura
Walter Mischel Julian Rotter |
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The state of being aware
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consciousness
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The top level of consciousness; cognizance of the autobiographical character of personally experienced events
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self-awareness
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An altered state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation, susceptibility to suggestions, and changes in perception, memory, motivation, and self-control
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hypnosis
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A form of consciousness alteration designed to enhance self-knowledge and well-being through reduced self-awareness
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meditation
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A mental process that severs a connection to a person's thoughts, memories, feelings, actions, or sense of identity
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dissociation
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Chemicals that affect mental processes and behavior by temporarily changing conscious awareness of reality
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psychoactive drugs
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Psychoactive drugs which temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind
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depressants
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Psychoactive drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both
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stimulants
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Psychoactive drugs have in common that they can cause subjective changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness
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hallucinogens
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Categories of hallucinogens
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psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants
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A cycle of wakefulness that synchronizes with the day
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circadian rhythm
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Electrical currents in the brain
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brain waves
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Cycle of brain waves during sleep repeats this often
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Every 90 minutes
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Stages of sleep
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Brain waves that predominantly originate from the occipital lobe during wakeful relaxation with closed eyes
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alpha waves
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The transitional state between wakefulness and sleep
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hypnogogic
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A burst of brain activity visible on an EEG that occurs during stage 2 sleep
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sleep spindle
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A high amplitude brain wave that is usually associated with slow-wave sleep (SWS)
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delta waves
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Deep sleep, consists of stages three and four of non-rapid eye movement sleep
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slow-wave sleep
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A behavioral sign of the phase of sleep during which the sleeper is likely to be experiencing dreamlike mental activity
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Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
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The region of the brain stem that alerts the cerebral cortex to incoming sensory signals and is responsible for maintaining consciousness and awakening from sleep
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reticular formation
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Another name for REM sleep, because the sleeper seems calm and relaxed despite increased cortical activity
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paradoxical sleep
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Recurring difficult falling asleep or staying asleep
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insomnia
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A sleep disorder characterized by an irresistible compulsion to sleep during the daytime
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narcolepsy
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A sleep disorder of the upper respiratory system that causes the person to stop breathing while asleep
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sleep apnea
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In Freudian dream analysis, the surface content of a dream, which is assumed to mask the dream's actual meaning
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manifest content
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In Freudian dream analysis, the hidden meaning of a dream
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latent content
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Theory that the brain's neurons fire randomly during seep, and as we wake, we construct a dream in order to make sense our of random images that have been generated.
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activation-synthesis theory
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Theory that dreams are how our brains sort through the day's events and record them into memory
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information-processing
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Prolonged periods of REM sleep that happen when a person has been deprived of REM sleep for a period.
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REM rebound
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The theory that conscious awareness of dreaming is a learnable skill that enables dreamers to control the direction and content of their dreams
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lucid dreaming
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The activation or energization of goal-oriented behavior
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motivation
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The activation or energization of goal-oriented behavior
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catharsis
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The psychic energy that drives individuals toward sensual pleasures of all types, especially sexual ones
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libido
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The motivational state of excitement and tension brought about by physiological and cognitive reactions to erotic stimuli
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sexual arousal
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Socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness
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sexual scripts
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When levels of this nutrient are low, we feel hungry
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glucose
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Neurons that appear to monitor blood glucose levels
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glucostats
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This hormone indirectly influences hunger by decreasing glucose levels
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insulin
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Part of the brain primarily responsible for food intake
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hypothalamus
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Effect in rats of damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
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Extreme overeating
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Theory that the hypothalamus contains an on and an off switch for eating, located in two different regions (LH and VMH)
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dual-center theory
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In the dual-center theory, what can activate the eating "switches" in the hypothalamus?
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Internal & external signals (such as the sight of food)
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The target weight that the body strives to maintain
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weight set point
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Set point theory suggest that each person's body has a fixed number of what?
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fat cells
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What effect of dieting is challenging to those who want to lose weight?
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it slows the body's metabolism
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Reasons for eating and overeating
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learned preferences and habits
external cues stress and arousal |
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Triggers for thirsts
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(1) when the concentration of salt cells in the body reaches a certain level
(2) a decrease in the total volume of fluid in the circulatory system (3) Rise in body temperature or energy expenditure |
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The theory that emotions consisted of physiological arousal and cognition factors
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Two factor theory of emotion
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What does Schachter's two factor theory of emotion suggest?
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That cognitions are used to interpret the meaning of physiological reactions to outside events. First, you feel the physical arousal --> label the arousal --> experience the emotion
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A theory that people feel emotions first and then act upon them
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
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A theory stating that the experience of emotion is the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, which serves to determine how an ambiguous inner state of arousal will be labeled
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Cognitive appraisal theory of emotion
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A peripheral-feedback theory of emotion stating that an eliciting stimulus triggers a behavioral response that sends different sensory and motor feedback to the brain and creates the feeling of a specific emotion
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James-Lange theory of emotion
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Idea that involuntary movements of the face send feedback to the brain about which emotion is being felt
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facial feedback theory
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What 5 facial expressions does the facial feedback theory suggest are universal?
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happiness, anger, disgust, sadness, and fear-surprise
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This theorist proposed that emotions evolved because they help a species to survive
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Robert Plutchik
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Plutchik's 8 primary emotions
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sadness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust, anticipation, joy, acceptance
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An inborn, unlearned, fixed pattern of behavior that is biologically determined and is a characteristic of an entire species
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instinct
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs is based on this
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motivation
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Clark Hull's theory that suggests that motivation results from attempting to keep a balanced internal state
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drive reduction theory
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A psychological state of tension or arousal that motivates activities to reduce this tension and restore homeostatic balance
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a drive
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Drives that arise from biological needs
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primary drives
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Drives that are learned through operant or classical conditioning
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secondary drives
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Theory that external stimuli regulate motivational states and that human behavior is goal-directed
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secondary drives
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Theory that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of alertness and mental/physical activation
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arousal theory
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A description of the empirical relationship between arousal and performance
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Yerkes-Dodson law
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What does the Yerkes-Dodson law dictate?
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That performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point
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Richard Solomon's theory that one emotional state will trigger an opposite emotional state that lasts long after the original emotion has disappeared, and the opposite state is what maintains motivation to carry out certain behaviors
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opponent-process theory of motivation
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Model suggesting that people must satisfy their basic or physiological needs before they can satisfy their higher-order needs.
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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Why do psychologists feel Maslow's theory is important?
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it highlights the complexity of human needs
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What criticism is directed toward Maslow's theory?
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It is difficult to test empirically
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Burton White's name for the desire to perform an activity because we find it inherently enjoyable
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intrinsic motivation
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When an activity is performed in order to obtain a reward or avoid an undesirable consequence
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extrinsic motivation
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Conditions that direct people toward establishing or maintaining relationships with others
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social motives
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Internal conditions related to feelings about self or others and establishing and maintaining relationships
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social needs
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A social need that directs a person to constantly strive for excellence and success
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need for achievement (nAch)
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Test that measures the strength of various social motives in an individual
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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Kind of goals set by people with high needs for achievement
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goals of moderate difficulty
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The unique psychological qualities of an individual that influence a variety of characteristic behavior patterns (both overt and covert) across different situations and over time
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personality
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The systematic procedures and measurement instruments used by trained professionals to evaluate an individual's functioning, aptitudes, abilities, or mental states
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formal assessment
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A self-report questionnaire used for personality assessment that includes a series of items about personal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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personality inventory
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A personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts
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projective test
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Distinct patterns of personality characteristics used to assign people to categories; qualitative differences, rather than differences in degree, used to discriminate among people
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personality types
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Theories of personality that share the assumption that personality is shaped by and behavior is motivated by powerful inner forces
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psychodynamic personality theories
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Which two forces did Freud believe to be the source of most needs or motives?
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sex and aggression
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Psychic determinism
Unconscious motivation The role of childhood experiences |
three basic psychodynamic concepts
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Psychoanalysis specifically refers to…
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Sigmund Freud’s work and theories
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How psychodynamic therapy differs from psychoanalysis
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contemporary influences have been added to Freud's work
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Freud's 3 levels of consciousness
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Perceptual consciousness
Preconscious Unconscious |
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The concept that, at any moment, the individual is consciously aware of only a small number of items or events
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perceptual consciousness
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The level of consciousness that comprises those events or facts not in the center of attention, yet readily retrieved from memory
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preconscious
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Memory that has been forgotten or repressed resides here
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unconscious
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The instinctual pole of the personality that does not think, only acts
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id
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The aspect of personality involved in self-preservation activities and in directing instinctual drives and urges into rational behavior
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ego
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The aspect of personality that represents the internalization of society's values, standards, and morals
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superego
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The way in which people distort reality to delude themselves into believing that something anxiety-provoking isn't happening
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defense mechanisms
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In the psychodynamic mode, what triggers anxiety?
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Conflict between the id, ego, and super ego
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The act of a client projecting reactions onto the counselor in the same way the client would react to a person who played a significant role in their personal life – usually a father or mother
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transference
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When the therapist, as a result of the therapy sessions, begins to transfer the therapist's own unconscious feelings to the patient
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countertransference
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Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior
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rationalization
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Pushing unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back into the unconscious
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repression
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What did Freud think causes repression?
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When a thought, feeling, or emotion is too painful for the person to rationally handle, the ego suppresses the threatening idea
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Behaving oppositely of one's true feelings
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reaction formation
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Reversion to immature patterns of behavior
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regression
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Attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, motivations, or shortcomings onto others
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projection
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Shifting unacceptable feelings from their original source to a safer, substitute target
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displacement
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Engaging in a useful, socially acceptable course of behavior to replace a socially unacceptable or distasteful impulse
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sublimation
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Detaching from stress by dealing with a situation in an intellectual and unemotional manner
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intellectualization
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Denying that a very unpleasant thing has happened
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denial
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In psychoanalysis, when a patient directly or indirectly opposes changing their behavior or refuses to discuss, remember, or think about presumably clinically relevant experiences
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resistance
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Freud's therapeutic method in which a patient gives a running account of thoughts, wishes, physical sensations, and mental images as they occur.
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free association
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Do what feels good, and do it now
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pleasure principle - what the id works according to
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Do what will get your needs met effectively, efficiently, and without getting hurt
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reality principle - what the ego works according to
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Do what's right and don't do what's wrong
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morality principle - what the superego works according to
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The approach to personality based on how people think about themselves and relate to the world around them
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social-cognitive approach
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The idea that how people think and behave, and what their environment is like, all interact to influence consistent behavior
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reciprocal determinism
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The idea that people's unique personalities can be understood as them having relatively greater or lesser amounts of traits that are consistent across people
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nomothetic
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What does the nomothetic perspective suggest?
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people differ in their positions along a continuum in the same set of traits
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The approach to personality that focuses on the ways people differ from each other, and measures this
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individual-difference approach
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Consistent patterns of behavior
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traits
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How many trait terms are in the English language?
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18,000
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Statistically identifying traits for which scores correlate highly with each other
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factor analysis
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The "Big Five" traits
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openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
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The idea that people have unique personality structures; thus some traits (cardinal traits) are more important in understanding the structure of some people than others
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idiographic
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What does the idiographic view of personal traits emphasize?
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That each person has a unique psychological structure and that some traits are possessed by only one person; and you cannot always compare one person with others
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Changeable characteristics of personality, such as moodiness
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states
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A generalized evaluative attitude toward the self that influences both moods and behavior and that exerts a powerful effect on a range of personal and social behaviors
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self-esteem
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A person's mental model of his or her abilities and attributes
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self-concept
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The set of beliefs that one can perform adequately in a particular situation
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self-efficacy
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The ideal selves that a person would like to become, the selves a person could become, and the selves a person is afraid of becoming; components of the cognitive sense of self
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possible selves
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The psychologist whose theories have resulted in much of the current literature on self-esteem
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Carl Rogers
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A concept in personality psychology referring to a person's constant striving to realize his or her potential and to develop inherent talents and capabilities
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self-actualization
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Carl Rogers' name for the collection of talents, thoughts, desires, and feelings genuine to a person
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true self
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What we would like to be
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ideal self
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Messages that children receive about what they do that is considered by the parent to be of value
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conditions of worth
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Appreciation for who a person is, faults and all
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unconditional positive regard
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What can avoid or repair conflict over a person's conditions of worth?
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relationship with empathic, accepting, and genuine people who offer unconditional positive regard
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The legal (not clinical) designation for the state of an individual judged to be legally irresponsible or incompetent
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insanity
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Behavior that can be observed by others
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overt behavior
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Behavior that is not apparent or visible to others
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covert behavior
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