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189 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Behaviorist insist that psychologist should study only
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observable, measurable behaviors and not mental processes
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Methodological behaviorists study
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only the events that they can measure and observe
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Intervening variable
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something that we cannot directly observe but that links a variety of procedures to a variety of possibilities
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Radical behaviorist
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deny that hunger, fear, or other internal, private events cause behavior
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Radical behaviorist differ from methodological behaviorist in that...
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all behaviorist insist that conclusions must be based on measurements or observations of behavior. However, a methodological behaviorist sometimes uses behavioral observations to make inferences about motivations or other internal states. A radical behaviorist avoids discussion of internal events and insists that internal events are never the cause of behavior
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Stimulus-response psychology
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the attempt to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response
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Why do behaviorist reject explanations in terms of thoughts?
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We cannot observe or measure thoughts or other internal events. We infer them from observed behaviors, and therefor, it is circular to use them as an explanation of behavior
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Pavlov presumed that animals are born with certain automatic connections...
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called unconditioned reflexes-between a stimulus such as food and a response such as secreting digestive juices
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The process by which an organism learns a new association between 2 stimuli-a neutral stimulus and on that already evokes a reflexive response-is known as
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classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning
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The unconditioned stimulus (US)
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an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response
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The unconditioned response (UR)
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an action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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response depends on the preceding conditions-that is the pairing of the CS with the US
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The conditioned response (CR)
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whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning procedure
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The US automatically elicits the
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UR
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The process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response is known as
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acquisition
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Extinction
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To extinguish a classically conditioned response, repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus
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Spontaneous recovery
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a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay
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Stimulus generalization
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the extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli
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Discriminate
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You respond differently because the 2 stimuli predict different outcomes
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Drug tolerance
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users of certain drugs experience progressively weaker effects after taking the drugs repeatedly
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Blocking effect
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the previously established association to one stimulus blocks the formation of an association to the added stimulus
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Edward L. Thorndike
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tested animal stupidity by placing cats in puzzle boxes where they had to escape by pressing a lever
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A learning curve
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a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over the course of learning
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Reinforcement
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the process of increasing the future probability of the most recent response
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Thorndike summarized his views in the law of effect:
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Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur
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Operant conditioning
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subject operates on the environment to produce an outcome
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Instrumental conditioning
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the subjects behavior is instrumental in producing the outcome
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Operant or instrumental conditioning is the process
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of changing behavior by providing a reinforcement after a response
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Visceral responses
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responses of the internal organs
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Skeletal responses
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movements of the leg muscles, arm muscles, etc.
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Reinforcer
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an event that follows a response and increases the later probability of frequency of that response
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Disequilibrium principle
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each of us has a normal equilibrium state in which we divide our time among various activities. If you have had a limited opportunity to engage in one in one of your behaviors, you are in disequilibrium, and an opportunity to increase that behavior, getting back to equilibrium will be reinforcing
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Primary reinforcers
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which are reinforcing because of their own properties. Things such as water and food.
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Secondary reinforcers
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became reinforcing because of previous experiences. Something like money.
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Punishment
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decreases the probability of a response
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Positive reinforcement
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the presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of behavior
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Passive avoidance learning
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is also punishment
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Negative reinforcement
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kind of reinforcement and therefor, it increases the frequency of a behavior (increases behavior and decreases negative outcome) aka escape learning or avoidance learning
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Negative punishment
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punishment by avoiding something good
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Omission training
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the omission of the response leads to restoration of the usual privelages
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Stimulus generalization
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the more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus the more likely is the same response
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Discrimination
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yielding a response to one stimulus but not another
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A stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate is called
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discriminative stimulus
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Stimulus control
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the ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others
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Shaping
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establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it
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Chaining
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reinforcing each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next behavior
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Continuos reinforcement
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provide reinforcement for every correct response
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Intermittent reinforcement
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reinforcement for some responses and not for others
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schedules of reinforcement
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rules for the delivery of reinforcement
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Fixed-ratio schedule
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provides reinforcement only after a certain cumber of correct responses
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Fixed-interval schedule
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provides reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval
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Variable-ratio schedule
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reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses
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variable-interval schedule
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reinforcement is available after a variable amount of time
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Applied behavior analysis/behavior modification
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a psychologist tries to remove the reinforcers for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcers for more acceptable behaviors
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Preparedness
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concept that evolution has prepared us to learn some associations more easily than others
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Conditioned taste aversion
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associating food with illness
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Sensitive period
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learns more readily in the first year of life
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Social-learning approach
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we learn about many behaviors by observing the behaviors of others
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Vicarious reinforcement/punishment
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by substituting someone else's experience with yours
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Self-efficacy
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the belief of being able to perform the task successfully
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Free recall
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To produce a response, as you do on essay rests or short-answer
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Cued recall
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You are given significant hints about the material that you are to recall
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Recognition
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You choose the correct item among several options
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Savings method (aka relearning method)
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Comparing the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning (you save time when you just relearn something rather than trying to remember)
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Explicit or direct memory
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Someone who states an answer regards it as a product of memory
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Implicit memory (indirect memory)
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An experience influences what you say or do even though you might not be aware of the influence
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To prime a word is to
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read or hear it so that the chance increases that you will use it
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Procedural memories
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Memories of motor skills
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Declarative memories
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Memories we can readily state in words
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Factors that influence children's memory
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1. Delay of questioning 2. Type of question 3. Hearing other children 4. Repeating the question 5. Using doll props 6. Understanding a question
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Information-processing model
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Compares human memory to a computer. Information that enters the system is processed, coded and stored
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Short term memory
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Temporary storage of recent events
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Long term memory
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a relatively permanent store
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Semantic memory
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Memory of principles and facts
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Episodic Memory
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Memory for specific events in your life
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Source amnesia
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Forgetting how or where you learned something
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You can store more information in short term memory by
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chunking=grouping items into meaningful sequences or clusters
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Consolidate
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Converting a short-term memory into a long-term memory
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Working memory
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A system for working with current information
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Components of working memory
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1. phonological loop-stores and rehearses speech information 2. Visuospatial sketchpad-temporary stores and manipulates visual and spatial information 3. central executive-governs shifts of attention 4. episodic buffer-binds together the various parts of a meaningful experience
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Primary effect
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the tendency to remember well the first items
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Recency effect
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the tendency to remember the final items
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Levels-of-processing principle
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How easily you retrieve a memory depends on the number and types of associations you form
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Retrieval cues
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reminders
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Encoding specificity principle
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The associations you form at the time of learning will be the most effective retrieval cues later
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State-depedent theory
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The tendency to remember something better if your body is in the same condition during recall as it was during the original learning
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SPAR method
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Survey-get an overview of what the passage is about. Process-Think about how you could use the ideas or how they relate to other things. Ask questions-test yourself. Review-Wait a day or more and retest yourself
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Mnemonic device
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Any memory aid that relies on encoding each item in a special way
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Method of loci
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First, you memorize a series of places, and then you used a vivid image to associate each location with something you want to remember
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Reconstruct
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During an original experience, we construct a memory. When we try to retrieve that memory, we reconstruct an account based partly on surviving memories and partly on our expectations of what might have happened
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Hindsight Bias
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The tendency to mold our recollection of the past to fit how events later turned out
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Old materials increase forgetting of the new materials through
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proactive interference (acting forward in time)
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New materials increase forgetting of the old materials through
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retroactive interference (acting backward in time)
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Recovered memories
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Reports of long-lost memories, prompted by clinical techniques
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Repression
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The process of moving an unbearable unacceptable memory impulse from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind
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Dissociation
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Referring to the memory that one has stored but cannot retrieve
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Amnesia
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Loss of memory
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Hippocampus
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Large forebrain structure in the interior of the temporal lobe
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Anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia
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Anterograde amnesia is the inability to store new long-term memories while retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the brain damage
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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A condition caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine), usually as a result of chronic alcoholism
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Confabulations
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attempts to fill in gaps in memory
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Alzheimer's Disease
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A condition occurring mostly in old age, characterized by increasingly severe memory loss, confusion, depression, disordered thinking and impaired attention
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Infant or childhood amnesia
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scarcity of early episodic memories
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Cognition means
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thinking and using knowledge
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Attention
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your tendency to respond to and remember some stimuli more that others
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Preattentive process
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stands out immediately
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Attentive process
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ONe that requires searching though the items in series
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Stroop effect
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The tendency to read the words instead of saying the color of the ink
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Change blindness
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The failure to detect changes in parts of a scene
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Attentional blink
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During a brief time after receiving one stimulus, it is difficult to attend to something else.
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Attention-Defecit disorder
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Easy distraction, impulsiveness, moodiness and failure to follow through on plans
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Attention-defecit hyperactivity disorder
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Same as ADD but with excessive activity and "fidgetiness"
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2 behavioral test used to measure deficit of attention or impulse control
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1) choice-delay-question is under what conditions someone will sacrifice a reward now or a larger one later. 2) Stop signal task-one signal calls for a response and a second signal cancels the first signal; the question is under what circumstances the person can inhibit a response
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Spreading activation
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Thinking about one concept will prime concepts linked to it
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Algorithm
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a mechanical, repetitive procedure for solving a problem or testing hypothesis
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Heuristics
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strategies for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess
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Maximizing
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Thoroughly considering every possibility to find the best one
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Satisficing
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Searching only until you find something satisfactory
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Representative heuristics
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The assumption that an item that resembles members of some category is probably also in that category
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Base-rate information
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How common 2 categories are
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Availability heuristic
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the tendency to assume that if we easily think of examples of a category, then that category must be common
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Critical thinking
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the carful evaluation of evidence for and against any conclusion
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Confirmation bias
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Accepting a hypothesis and then looking for evidence to support it instead of considering other possibilities
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Functional fixedness
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The tendency to adhere to a single approach or a single way of using an item
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Framing effect
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The tendency to answer a question differently when it is framed (phrased) differently
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Sunk cost effect
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The willingness to do something because money or effort already spent
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Implicit Association Test
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Task, based on relative speed of response to different pairs of stimuli
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Productivity
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The ability to combine our words into new sentences that express an unlimited variety of ideas
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Transformational grammer
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A system for converting a deep structure into a surface structure
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Language acquisition device
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A built-in mechanism for acquiring language
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Broca's aphasia
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A condition characterized by difficulties in language production
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Wernicke's aphasia
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A condition marked by impaired recall of nouns and impaired comprehension of language, despite the ability to speak fluently and grammatically
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Phoneme
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A unit of sound
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Morpheme
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A unit of meaning
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Word-superiority effect
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To identify the letter more accurately when it is part of a word than when it is presented by itself
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Fixations
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Eyes are stationary
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Saccades
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Quick eye movements from one fixation point to another
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Psychometric approach
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The measurement of individual differences in performance
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g
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general ability
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s
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specific ability
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Fluid intelligence
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The power of reasoning and using information
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Crystalized intelligence
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Acquired skills and knowledge and the ability to apply that knowledge in specific situations
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Multiple intelligences
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Unrelated forms of intelligence, consisting of language, musical abilities, logical and mathematical reasoning, spatial reasoning, ability to recognize and classify objects, body movement skills, self control and self-understanding, and sensitivity to other people's social signals
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Triarchic theory
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Deals with three aspects of intelligence: a) cognitive process b) identifying situations c)using intelligence in practical ways
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Aptitude
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Ability to learn or fluid intelligence
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Achievement
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What someone has already learned or crystallized intelligence
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Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests
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Measure an individual's probable performance in school and similar settings
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Mental age
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The average ago of children who perform as well as this child
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Most widely used, cultural-reduced test
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Progressive Matrices test
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Standardization
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The process of evaluating the questions, establishing rules for administering a test, and interpreting the scores
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Norms
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Descriptions of how frequently various scores occur
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Down syndrome
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A condition with a variety of physical and medical impairments that result from having and extra copy of chromosome #21
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Flynn effect
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Decade by decade, generation by generation, people's raw scores on IG tests have gradually increased, and test makers have had to make the tests harder to keep the mean score at 100
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Developmental quotient
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Score based on ages at which an infant holds the head up, sits up, stands, walks, jumps, shows curiosity, says first word, responds to requests and so forth
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Heterosis
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improvement due to outbreeding
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Reliability of a test
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The repeatability of test scores
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Test-retest reliability
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The correlation between scores on a first test and a retest
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Validity
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The degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test score for its intended purposes
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A biased test...
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overstates or understates the true performance of one or more groups
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Consciousness
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The subjective experience of perceiving oneself and one's surroundings
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Binocular rivalry
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The alteration between seeing the pattern in the left retina and the pattern in the right retina
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Brain death
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brain shows no activity and no response to any stimulus
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Coma
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Caused by trauma or damage to the rain, the brain shows a steady but low level activity and no response to any stimulus
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Vegetative state
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They respond to some stimuli but show no purposeful actions
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Minimally conscious state
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The person has brief periods of purposeful actions and speech comprehension
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Phi effect
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An illusion of light moving back and forth between 2 locations
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Spatial neglect
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A tendency to ignore the left side of the body, the left side of the world, or the left side of objects
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Deja vu experience
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the sense that an event is uncannily familiar
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The increased motor cortex activity prior to the start of the movement is known as the
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readiness potential
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Circadian rhythm
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A rhythm of activity and inactivity lasting about a day
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Jet lag
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A period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surrounding
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus
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Tiny structure at base of brain that generates circadian rhythm
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Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
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During this stage of sleep, sleeper's eyes move rapidly back and forth under closed lids
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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measure and amplifies tiny electrical changes on the scalp that reflect patterns of brain activity
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Polysomnograph
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Combination of an EEG measure with a simultaneous measure of eye movements
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Stage 2 of sleep is marked by sleep spindles, which are
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waves of activity about 12-14 per second
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Insomnia
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not being able to sleep; not enough sleep to wake feeling rested the next day
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Sleep apnea
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People fail to breathe for a minute or more and then wake gasping for air
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Narcolepsy
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Experience sudden attacks of extreme sleepiness during the day
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Night terror
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Causes someone to awaken screaming and sweating with a racing heart rate, sometimes flailing with the arms and pounding the walls
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Periodic limb disorder
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Prolonged creepy-crawly sensations in their legs, accompanied by repetitive leg movements that can wake them in the first half of the night
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Manifest content
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In a dream, the content that appears on the surface
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Latent content
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In a dream, the hidden ideas that the dream experience represents symbolically
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Activation-synthesis theory of dreams
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Input arising from the pons activates the brain during REM sleep. The cortex takes that haphazard activity plus whatever stimuli strike the sense organs and does its best to synthesize a story to makes sense of this activity
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Neurocognitive theory
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Treats dreams as a kind of thinking that occurs under special conditions
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Hypnosis
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A condition of increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist-subject relationship
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Posthypnotic suggestion
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A suggestion to do or experience something after coming out of hypnosis
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Hallucinations
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Sensory experiences not corresponding to reality
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Meditation
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A systematic procedure for inducing a calm, relaxed state through the use of special techniques
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