Psych Exam 4 (Final)

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The Psychological Therapies - eclectic approach

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1/2 of all psychotherapists use this approach: a blend of many different types of therapies, choosing one or the other depending on the person and problem being treated. Depending of the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms from various forms of therapy.

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Psychoanalysis - resistance

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The blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.

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Psychoanalysis - transference

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the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions liked with other relationships (such as love or hatred of a parent)

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counter transference

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the psychoanalyst's own unconscious conflict leads to transfer of emotions and thus unconscious and unwanted hostile feelings toward a patient. These feelings are seen to get in the way of the treatment of the patient.

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catharsis

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the act of expressing or experiencing the deep emotions often associated with events in the individual's past which had originally been repressed or ignored and had never been adequately addressed or experienced. Catharsis is also an emotional release associated with talking about the underlying causes of a problem or seeing a dream.

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Humanistic Therapies - client centered therapy (Rogerian Therapy)

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developed by Carl Rogers; therapy in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth.

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Behavior Therapies - systematic desensitization

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a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli; commonly used to treat phobias.

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Behavior Therapies - aversive conditioning

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type of counter-conditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

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flooding

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a technique used in behavior therapy; client is flooded with experiences of a particular kind until becoming either averse to them or numbed to them

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Gestalt Therapy

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emphasis on the present and on integrating all parts of the person (emotional and thinking) with the world; often very confrontational.

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rational-emotive therapy

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it's not what happens to us, it's how we think about it.

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Cognitive Therapies - cognitive therapies for depression

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therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions. In depressed peope, Beck and his colleagues have sought to reverse clients' catastrophizing beliefs about themselves/situations/futures. With gentle questioning intended to reveal irrational thinking, they persuade depressed people to take off the dark glasses through which they see the world.

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The Biomedical Therapies - Prozac

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antidepressant fluoxetine; partially blocks the reabsorption and removal of seratonin from synapses. Prozac/Zoloft/Paxil are called selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors (SSRIs)

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The Biomedical Therapies - lithium

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mood-stabilizing drug; simple salt -lithium- can be an effective stabilizer for those suffering the emotional highs and lows of bipolar disorder.

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The Biomedical Therapies - ECT

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electroconvulsive therapy; a more controversial brain manipulation; but study after study confirms that ECT is an effective treatment for severe depression in patients who have not responded to drug therapy. No one knows how exactly this works, yet.

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The Biomedical Therapies - lobotomy

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a now -rare pyschosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional of violent patients. This procedure cut the nerves connectig the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain. The lobotomy usually produced a permanently lethargic, immature, impulsive personality.

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inderol

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a blood pressure med that is a beta blocker that will slow your heart rate and in the process, keep the anixiety very low.

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phenothiazines

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One of a group of tranquilizing drugs with antipsychotic actions thought to act by blocking dopaminergic transmission (messages sent using the substance dopamine) within the brain.

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trephining

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ancient, prehistoric surgery Cave paintings indicate that people believed the practice would cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders. antiquated medical intervention in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases. A trephine is an instrument used for cutting out a round piece of skull bone. The modern procedure is known as craniotomy.

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The relative effectiveness of different therapies

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Studies indicate that no one type of psychotherapy is superior. Therapy is most effective for those with clear-cut, specific problems. Some therapies are well-suited to specific disorders. Behavioral conditioning = effective in treating phobias and compulsions. Cognitive therapy = effective in reducing depression and suicide risk.

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Attributing Behavior to Persons of to Situations - fundamental attribution error

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the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of a personal disposition.
(i.e. Juliette may seldom talk in class, thus we attribute her behavior and say she's shy. However, at a party she may be completely different.)

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forced compliance

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When a person is induced to advocate publicly a position that is contrary to his or her attitudes. Research on forced compliance has shown an inverse relationship between incentive magnitude and attitude change.

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self-handicapping bias

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an action or choice which prevents a person from being responsible for failure. People want to be able to accept credit for any success, but have an excuse for any failure. From these definitions we can see that the strategy of self-handicapping is used in evaluative setting so that the person has ready excuses for failures. Therefore if a failure occurs it is attributed to the handicap instead of the lack of ability on the part of the individual

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Do Our Actions Affect Our Attitudes - the foot-in-the-door phenomenon

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the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. To get someone to agree to something big, "start small and build".

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Do Our Actions Affect Our Attitudes - cognitive dissonance theory

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the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

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cognitive dissonance experiments discussed in class

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...

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fear appeals

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Fear appeals are persuasive messages designed to scare or frighten people into complying with a particular message by describing the awful and terrible things that will happen to them if they do not act in accordance with the message. (i.e. campaigns against drunk driving, drug use, unprotected sex)

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door-in-the-face

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a persuasion method: Compliance with the request of concern is enhanced by first making an extremely large request that the respondent will obviously turn down. The respondent is then more likely to accede to a second, more reasonable request than if this second request were made without the first, extreme request. There is also a feeling of guilt associated with the DITF technique of sequential requests. A person is also more likely to agree with the second request because they feel guilty for having rejected the first request.

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low ball

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A two-step compliance strategy in which the influencer secures agreement with a request by understating its true cost.

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inoculation theory

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to prevent persuasion it is necessary to strengthen preexisting attitudes, beliefs, or opinions. First, the receiver must be warned of an impending attack. This establishes threat (or a recognition of vulnerability) and initiates defenses to future attacks. Therefore, the idea is that when weak argument is presented in the inoculation message their process of refutation will prepare for stronger persuasion later. It is critical that the attack is strong enough to keep the receiver defensive, but weak enough to not actually change those preexisting ideas. This will hopefully make the receiver actively defensive and allow them to create arguments in favor of their preexisting thoughts. The more active the receiver becomes in his or her defense the more it will strengthen their own attitudes, beliefs, or opinions

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Social Influence

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Normative - influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
Informational - influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

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Conformity - all about Asch's conformity experiments

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simple test: a participant in what they believe is a visual perception study, asked to compare three lines; which looks most similar to line 1? You know the answer is #2. The people you're sitting next to also say line 2. After about three times, the other "participants say line 3. You don't think this is correct, but you're confused because everyone else says line 3. 1/3 of the time in this situation, college student participants were "willing to call white black" by going along with the group.

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Conformity - conditions that strengthen conformity (the most important ones were discussed in class)

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* one is made to feel incompetent or insecure.
* the group has at least 3 people.
* the group is unanimous.
* one admires the group's status and attractiveness
* one has made no prior commitment to any response
* others in the group observe one's behavior
* one's culture strongly encourages respect for social standards

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How models affect attitudes

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..

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Jericho experiment

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..

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Obedience - all about Milgram's experiments

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Milgram tested how obedient 20-50 yr. old men/women were when asked to follow an experimenter's instructions to "teach" the "learner" (who you think is another participant, like yourself) by delivering electric shocks, which increase in intensity up to 450-volt shocks for each wrong answer given by the "learner". About 65% complied fully.

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Obedience - conditions that strengthen obedience (important ones discussed in class)

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* the person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure.
* the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution
* the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, even in another room.
* there were no role modes for defiance, that is, no other participants were seen disobeying the experimenter.

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Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies

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ordinary people can become agents in a terrible destructive process.

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Group Influence - social facilitation

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stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

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Group Influence - social loafing

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tendency of people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

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Group Influence - deindividualization

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loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

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Group Influence - Group Polarization

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the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

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Group Influence - Groupthink

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harmonious but not realistic

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territoriality

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They are one of several boundary regulation mechanisms (see personal space) that allow individuals to maintain control over their possessions, thoughts, and behaviors. Territories are different from personal space in that they are physical areas, can be left and reclaimed, and have physical boundaries.

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Social Relations - cognitive roots of prejudice

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stereotyped beliefs are a by-product of how we cognitively simplify the world.
*Categorization - recognize how greatly we differ from other individuals in our groups, but overestimate the similarity of those within other groups. "They" seem to look and act like everyone else in their group but "we" are diverse.
*Vivid cases - judge the frequency of events by instances that readily come to mind. Vivid cases are readily available to our memory and therefore influence our judgments of group.
* just-word-phenomenon - justify prejudice by blaming its victims. bystanders blame victims by assuming the world is just and "people get what they deserve"

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Social Relations - just word phenomenon

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the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

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Attraction- proximity

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geographic nearness, provides opportunities for aggression, but much more often, breeds liking. Greater availability of those we often meet. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increase our liking for them.

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Attraction - mere exposure effect

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the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them.

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Attraction - physical attractiveness

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has wide-ranging effects- predicts their frequency of dating, feelings of popularity, perceived to be healthier, happier, more sensitive, more successful, more socially skilled, though not more honest or compassionate.

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Attraction - similarity

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the more alike people are, the more their liking endures. love is sustained "when lovers love many things together, and not merely each other". Similarity breeds content. Those with similar views reward us by validating their own.

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pheromones

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chemical messengers emitted by one creature to evoke a response in another of the same species

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first impressions

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First impressions are formed when people observe others for the first time and then ascribe personality traits based on those observations. First impressions play an important role in human interaction because they affect the ways in which people anticipate reactions from others. It is important to try to increase our understanding of how first impressions are formed so that we may be aware of the possible inaccuracy of our judgments of others

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neotony

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Because female fecundity typically declines after the late twenties, youth is an important aspect of physical attractiveness.
This preference for youth has also led to a preference of neotenic and youthful-appearing features. Full lips, clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women.

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halo effect

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cognitive bias whereby the perception of a particular trait is influenced by the perception of the former traits in a sequence of interpretations. the first traits we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of later ones because of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance. Thus, we see that celebrities are used to endorse products that they have no actual expertise in evaluating, and with which they may not even have any prior affiliation.

Front 55

playing hard to get

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Men are most attracted to women who are hard for other men to get - but easy for themselves to get... although men do have a need to pursue or chase something... so initially playing hard to get is a good thing; makes the female more desirable.

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cognitive dissonance

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..

Front 57

Altruism - Bystander Intervention - bystander effect

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the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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diffusion of responsibility

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group members feel less responsibility for their actions (or inactions) than people acting individually. *important factor in the bystander effect*