Psych Exam 3

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Motivation

Back 1

the urge to move toward one's goals; to accomplish tasks

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Drives

Back 2

the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need, creating an urge to relieve the tension

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Needs

Back 3

inherently biological states of deficiency (cellular or bodily) that compel drives

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Incentive

Back 4

any external object or event that motivates behavior

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Homeostasis

Back 5

the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point

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Set Point

Back 6

the ideal fixed setting of a particular physiological system, such as inernal body temperature

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Yerkes-Dodson law

Back 7

the principle that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance

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Self-actualization

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the inherent drive to realize one's full potential

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

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lower level needs must be satisfied before we can focus on achieving self-actualization. (lowest to highest):
physiological, safety and security, love and belongingness, esteem, self actualization

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emotions

Back 10

brief, acute changes in conscious experience and physiology that occur in response to a personally meaningful situation

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moods

Back 11

affective states that operate in the background of consciousness and tend to last longer than most emotions

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affective traits

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stable predispositions toward certain types of emotional responses such as anger

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basic emotions

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set of emotions that are common to all humans; includes anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

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self-conscious emotions

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types of emotion that require a sense of self and the ability to reflect on actions; they occur as a function of meeting expectations (or not) and abiding (or not) by society's rules

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broaden-and-build model

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fredickson's model for positive emotions, which posits that they widen our cognitive perspective and help us acquire useful life skills

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antecedent event

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a situation that may lead to an emotional response

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appraisal

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the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one's own welfare; it drives the process by which emotions are elicited

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emotion regulation

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the cognitive and behavioral efforts people make to modify their emotions

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reappraisal

Back 19

an emotion regulation strategy in which one reevaluates an antecedent event so that a different emotion results

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emotional response

Back 20

the physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes that occur when emotions are generated

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expressive-suppression

Back 21

a response-focused strategy for regulating emotion that involves the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward manifestation of an emotion

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facial action coding system (FACS)

Back 22

a widely used method for measuring all observable muscular movements that are possible in the human face

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duchenne smile

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a smile that expresses true enjoyment, involving both the muscles that pull up the lip corners diagonally and those that contract the band of muscles encircling the eye

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james-lang theory of emotion

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the idea that it is the perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions that produces the subjective emotional experience

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subjective experience of emotion

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the changes in the quality of our conscious experience that occur during the emotional responses

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cultural relativism

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the idea that behavior varies across cultures and can be understood only within the context of the culture in which they occur

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universal

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term referring to something that is common to all human beings and can be seen in cultures al over the world

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neurocultural theory of emotion

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ekman's explanation that some aspects of emotion, such as facial expressions and physiological changes associated with emotion, are universal and others, such as emotional regulation, are culturally derived

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display rules

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learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to express certain emotions and to whom one should show them

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learning

Back 30

enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience

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association

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process by which two pieces of information from the environment are repeatedly linked so that we begin to connect them in our minds

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conditioning

Back 32

a form of associative learning in which behaviors are triggered by associations with events in the environment

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classical conditioning

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form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic inborn response

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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the automatic, inborn reaction to a stimulus

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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the environmental input that always produces the same unlearned response

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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a previously neural input that an orgasm learns to associate with the UCS

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conditioned response (CR)

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a behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with the CS

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stimulus descrimination

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restriction of a CR (such as salivation) to the exact CS to which it was conditioned

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Stimulus generalization

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extension of the association between UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli

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extinction

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the weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response, which occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS

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spontaneous recovery

Back 41

the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response

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law of effect

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the consequences of a behavior increase (or decrease) the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

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operant conditioning

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the process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior

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reinforcer

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an internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior

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secondary/conditioned reinforcers

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reinforcers that are learned by association, usually via classical conditioning

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positive reinforcement

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the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur

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primary reinforcers

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innate, unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs (such as food, water, or sex)

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negative reinforcement

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removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that behavior

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punishment

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stimulus, presented after a behavior, that decreases the frequency of the behavior

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skinner box

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simple chamber used for operant condition of small animals

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shaping

Back 51

the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs

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intermittent reinforcement

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reinforcement of a behavior-but not after every response

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schedules of reinforcement

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patterns of reinforcement distinguished by whether reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses or after a certain amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement

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fixed ratio (FR) schedule

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pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes

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variable ratio (VR) schedule

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pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes

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fixed interval (FI) schedule

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pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed

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variable interval (VI) schedule

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pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed

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instinctive drift

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learned behavior that shifts toward instinctive unlearned behavior tendencies

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biological constraint model

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view on learning proposing that some behaviors are inherently more likely to be learned than others

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biological constraint model

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view on learning proposing that some behaviors are inherently more likely to be learned than others

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latent learning

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learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs

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conditioned taste aversion

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the learned avoidance of a particular taste of food

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enactive learning

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learning by doing

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observational learning

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learning by watching the behavior of others

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social learning theory

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a description of the kind of learning that occurs when we model or imitate the behavior of others

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modeling

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the imitation of behaviors performed by others

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imprinting

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the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth

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ethology

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the scientific study of animal behavior

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human language

Back 71

a communication system specific to to homo sapiens; it is open and symbolic, has rules of grammar, and allows its users to express abstract and distant ideas

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syntax

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the rules for arranging words and symbols to form sentences or parts of sentences in a particular language

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grammar

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the entire set of rules for combining symbols and sounds to speak and write particular language

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protolanguage

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very rudimentary language, also known as prelanguage, used by earlier species of homo

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babbling

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sounds made as a result of the infant's experimentation with a complex range of phonemes, which include consonants as well as vowels; starts around 5-6 months

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one-word utterance

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single words, such as "mama," "dada," "more" or "no!"; occurs around 12 months of age

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cooing

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the first sounds humans make other than crying, consisting almost exclusively of vowels; occurs during first 6 months of life.

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two-word utterances

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phrases children put together starting around 18months, such as "my ball" "mo wawa" or "go away"

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sentence phase

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stage when children begin speaking in fully grammatical sentences; usually age 2.5 to 3

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child-directed speech

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changes in adult speech patters-apparently universal-when speaking to young children or infants; characterized by higher pitch, changes in voice volume, use of simpler sentences, emphasis on the here and now, and use of emotion to communicate messages

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nativist view of language

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the idea that we discover language rather than learn it, that language development is inborn

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language acquisition device (LAD)

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an innate, biologically based capacity to acquire language, proposed by Noam Chomsky as part of his nativist view of language

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linguistic determinism hypothesis

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the proposition that our language determines our way of thinking and our perceptions of the world; the view taken by sapir and whorf

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cognition

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mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and storing knowledge

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cognitive psychology

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the science of how people think, learn, remember, and percieve

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metnal representation

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a structure in our mind-such as an idea or image-that stands for something else, such as an external object or thing sensed in the past or future, not the present

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mental rotation

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process of imagining an object turning in three-dimensional space

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concept

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a mental grouping of objects, events, or people

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concept hierarchy

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arrangement of related concepts in a particular way, with some being general and others specific

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category

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a concept that organizes other concepts around what they all share in common

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prototypes

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the best-fitting examples of a category

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reasoning

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the process of drawing inferences or conclusions from principles and evidence

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deductive reasoning

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reasoning from general statements of what is known to specific conclusions

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inductive reasoning

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reasoning to general conclusions from specific evidence

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critical thinking

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process by which one analyzes, evaluates, and forms ideas

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causal inferences

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judgments about causation of one thing by another

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to selectively attend to information that supports one's general beliefs while ignoring information or evidence that contradicts one's beliefs

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scientific thinking

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process using the cognitive skills require to generate, test, and revise theories

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metacognitive thinking

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process that includes the ability first to think and then to reflect on one's own thinking

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heuristics

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mental shortcuts; methods for making complex and uncertain decisions and judgments

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representativeness heuristic

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a strategy we use to estimate the probability of one event based on how typical it is of another event

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availability heuristic

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a device we use to make decions based on the ease with which estimates come to mind or how available they are to our awareness.

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idioms

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expressions unique to a particular language; usually their meaning cannot be determined by decoding the individual meanings of the words.