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79 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
what are cortiocspinal tracts
paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
name the two corticospinal tracts
Lateral corticospinal tract
Medial corticospinal tract
what does the lateral corticospinal tract control?
Controls movement in peripheral areas (hands and feet)
what does the medial corticospinal tract control?
Allow control of muscles of the neck, shoulders and trunk.
Enables movements such as walking, turning, bending, standing up, and sitting down.
What is the lateral corticospinal tract?
a set of axons from the primary motor cortex, surrounding areas, and the red nucleus to the spinal cord.
Does the lateral corticospinal tract to the contralateral or ipsolateral side of the body?
contralateral
Does the medial corticospinal tract to the contralateral or ipsolateral side of the body?
Neither. Axons go to both sides of the spinal cord
What is the red nucleus?
a midbrain area with output mainly to the arm muscles
what is te medial corticospinal tract?
set of axons from many parts of the cortex, the reticular formation, midbrain tectum and vestibular nucleus.
what is the vestibular nucleus?
is a brain area that receives information from the vestibular system.
What is the cerebellum?
is a structure in the brain often associated with balance and coordination.
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
with rapid movement requiring aim and timing, like clapping hands, speaking, writing, etc. It is important for tasks that require timing, shifting attention and attend to stimui.
From what does the cerebellum receives input?
from each of the sensory systems, and from the cerebral cortex and sends it to the cerebellar cortex.
What is the cerebellar cortext?
It is the surface of the cerebellum.
What cells are found in the cerebellar cortex and how are they arranged?
Purkinje cells- flat parallel cells in sequential planes
Parallel fibers are axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of Purkinje cells. The greater the number of Purkinje cells the greater their collective duration of response.
What are the brain mechanisms of movement in the cerebellar cortex?
Parallel fibers excite Pukinje cells, the Pukinje cells transmit inhibiory messages to the cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum and vestibular nuclei. Then on to the midbrain and thalamus.
What is the basal ganglia?
is a group of large subcortical structures in the forebrain responsible for initiating an action not guided by a stimulus. Includes Caudate nucleus, Putamen, Globus pallidus
Who does movement mechanism work in basal ganglia?
Cerebral cortex --> Caudate nucleus & putamen --> globus pallidus--> thalamus --> motor areas and the prefrontal cortex
What are basal gangia critical for in learning?
it's critical for learning motor skills, organizing sequences of movement, “automatic” behaviors, and new habits .
What happens to the motor cortex as skill is earned?
Relevant neurons increase their firing rate and the pattern of activity becomes more consistent.
What is Parkinson's disease?
A movement disorder that causes tremors, rigidity, slow movement and difficulty initiating physical and mental activity.
What are additional symptoms of parkinson?
Impairment in initiating spontaneous movement in the absence of stimuli to guide the action. Symptoms also include depression and memory and reasoning deficits and other cognitive deficits.
What happens in the brain in Parkinson's?
Gradual and progressive death of neurons, especially in the substantia nigra.S.N. sends dopamine to caudate nucleus. Without dopamine, there's less stimulation of the motor cortex and slower onset of movements.
Is Parkinson's genetically linked?
Early onset is genetically linked, late onset (after 50) is ess so.
What are some theories of causes of Parkinson's?
MPTP found in some illegal drugs and pesticides and is converted to MPP+ which accumulates and destroys neurons that release dopamine.
How do cigarette smoking, caffeine and marijuana, and mitochondria affect chances of Parkinson's?
Cigs and coffee are related to decrease in incidence of Parkinsons, weed is associated with an increase. Damaged mitochondria is a common factor increases risk of Parkinson's.
What is the treatment for Parkinsons?
L-dopa is a precursor to dopamine that easily crosses the blood-brain barrier. Often ineffective, esp. for late stage. Doesn't prevent neuro loss.
What are some other possible Parkinson's treatments?
Antioxidant drugs, dopamine stimulants, glutamate blockers, adenosine bloces, Neurotrophins, Drugs that decrease apoptosis.electrical stimulation of the globus pallidus, Stimulation of cannabinoid receptors
Do neurons from aborted fetuses or stem cells show promise in Parkinson's treatment?
Aborted fetuses only show moderate promise, stem cells are an attractive alternative.
What is Huntington's Disease?
A neurological disorder associated with gradual and extensive brain damage especially in the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and the cerebral cortex.
What are symptoms of Huntington's?
Physical: arm jerks, twicthes then tremors, difficulty walking. Psych: Depression, memory impairment, anxiety, hallucinations and delusions, poor judgment, alcoholism, drug abuse, and sexual disorders.
What about treatment and tests for Huntington's?
Controlled by an autosomal dominant gene on chromosome #4. Not reatment yet. Protein that codes it. (huntingtin) might lead to treatment.
What is amplitude?
Heigh and subsequent intensity of the sound wave.
What is loudness?
the perception of the sound wave (aplitude is one factor).
What is frequency?
the number of compressions per second and is measured in hertz.
What is pitch?
Related to frequency, is the high to low of a sound.
What is the outer ear called and what does it do?
The pinna. Alters reflection of sound waves into midde ear from outer ear. Helps ocate source of sound.
What is the tympanic membrane?
The ear drum, vibrates at the same rate when struck by sound waves. Connects to malleus, incus, and stapes.
What do the malleus incus and stapes do?
They transform waves into stronger waves to the oval window, which transmits waves through the viscuous fluid of the inner ear.
What is the cochlea
Snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing 3 fluid-filled tunnels (scala vestibuli, scala media, scala tympani)
What are hair cells?
Auditory receptors that lie between basilar membrane and tectorial membrane in the cochlea. Movement of hair cells caused by fluid excites the cells of the auditory nerve.
What is place theory?
Each area along the basilar membrane has hair cells sensitive to only one specific frequency of sound wave.
What is frequency theory?
Basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with sound causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at same frequency.
Which pitch theory do scientists currently accept?
Modified versions of both and frequency theory (low frequency sounds) and place theory (high frequency sounds)
What is volley principle?
auditory nerve as whole produces voleys of impulses up to 4000 p.s. Requires precise timing.
What is primary auditory cortex (area A1)?
Located in superior temporal cortex, receives info from opposite ear, destination for most auditory information.
What is primary auditory cortex responsible for?
it is necessary for advanced processing of hearing (damage to it does not necessarily cause deafness).
What do the cells outside A1 do?
They respond to auditory "objects" like animal cries, machinery, music, etc.) most likely responsible for interpreting the meaning of sounds.
What is conductive/middle ear deafness?
Bones of middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) fail to transmit sound. Causes are disease, infection, tumerous growt.
What is nerve or inner-ear deafness?
Results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve.If confined by one part of cochlea only certain frequencies are heard.
What is tintinitus?
Ringing of the ears. Experienced by many people with nerve deafness.
What are three cues involved with sound localization?
sound shadow, time of arrival, phase difference.
How do humans localize sound, in terms of frequency?
Phase difference for low frequency sounds (up to 1500 hz). Loudness difference in high frequency sounds.
How does sound shadow help in high frequency sounds?
High frequency sounds create a sound shadow, making sound louder for the closer ear.
When is difference of time of arrival most useful in detecting location?
sudden onset sounds.
What do the cells outside A1 do?
They respond to auditory "objects" like animal cries, machinery, music, etc.) most likely responsible for interpreting the meaning of sounds.
What do the cells outside A1 do?
They respond to auditory "objects" like animal cries, machinery, music, etc.) most likely responsible for interpreting the meaning of sounds.
What is conductive/middle ear deafness?
Bones of middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) fail to transmit sound. Causes are disease, infection, tumerous growt.
What is conductive/middle ear deafness?
Bones of middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) fail to transmit sound. Causes are disease, infection, tumerous growt.
What is nerve or inner-ear deafness?
Results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve.If confined by one part of cochlea only certain frequencies are heard.
What is nerve or inner-ear deafness?
Results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve.If confined by one part of cochlea only certain frequencies are heard.
What is tintinitus?
Ringing of the ears. Experienced by many people with nerve deafness.
What is tintinitus?
Ringing of the ears. Experienced by many people with nerve deafness.
What are three cues involved with sound localization?
sound shadow, time of arrival, phase difference.
What are three cues involved with sound localization?
sound shadow, time of arrival, phase difference.
How do humans localize sound, in terms of frequency?
Phase difference for low frequency sounds (up to 1500 hz). Loudness difference in high frequency sounds.
How do humans localize sound, in terms of frequency?
Phase difference for low frequency sounds (up to 1500 hz). Loudness difference in high frequency sounds.
How does sound shadow help in high frequency sounds?
High frequency sounds create a sound shadow, making sound louder for the closer ear.
How does sound shadow help in high frequency sounds?
High frequency sounds create a sound shadow, making sound louder for the closer ear.
When is difference of time of arrival most useful in detecting location?
sudden onset sounds.
When is difference of time of arrival most useful in detecting location?
sudden onset sounds.
What do the cells outside A1 do?
They respond to auditory "objects" like animal cries, machinery, music, etc.) most likely responsible for interpreting the meaning of sounds.
What is conductive/middle ear deafness?
Bones of middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) fail to transmit sound. Causes are disease, infection, tumerous growt.
What is nerve or inner-ear deafness?
Results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve.If confined by one part of cochlea only certain frequencies are heard.
What is tintinitus?
Ringing of the ears. Experienced by many people with nerve deafness.
What are three cues involved with sound localization?
sound shadow, time of arrival, phase difference.
How do humans localize sound, in terms of frequency?
Phase difference for low frequency sounds (up to 1500 hz). Loudness difference in high frequency sounds.
How does sound shadow help in high frequency sounds?
High frequency sounds create a sound shadow, making sound louder for the closer ear.
When is difference of time of arrival most useful in detecting location?
sudden onset sounds.