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150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social Psychology
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The scientific study of the way in which individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
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Kurt Lewin
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-Father of Modern Social Psychology
-Came with the rise in Nazism in Germany and Emigration to the US -He emphasized practical research to promote change -Came up with the Interactionist Perspection = person reacts with the situation |
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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-People tend to attribute behavior to characteristics of the person when it's someone else but to characteristics of the environment when talking about themselves
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Altruism
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Pure helping behavior
-EX: saving a woman you dont know in an icy cold river |
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Sociocultural Approach to Social Psychology
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-Each culture creates norms about how one is to think, feel, and behave
-Social norms: rules about appropriate behavior -Culture: set of beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by people living in a particular time and place |
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Evolutionary Approach to Social Psychology
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-Natural Selection: thought that survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
-Survival of the Fittest: evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment -Adaptation: A change to the genotype in a way that increases an individuals fitness |
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Social Learning Approach to Social Psychology
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-Direct Learning: In class or parents telling us something
-Indirect Learning: Seeing someone get rewarded or punished for something -Albert Bandura's Bobo Experiment: How children knock an air filled doll after seeing adult do it |
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Social Cognitive Approach to Social Psychology
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-Social Cognition: The way in which people think about themselves and the social world - how they select, interpret, remember, and use social info to make judgments and decisions
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Empirical Research
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-Based on data and careful study
-Used to learn the mechanisms behind behavior, without relying on common sense or introspection |
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Formulating Hypotheses and Theories
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Experimental -> Correlational (tells you that 2 things are related) -> Descriptive (look at things and describe what is going on)
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Descriptive Methods
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-Researcher observes people and records measurements or impressions of their behavior
-Ex: Naturalistic Observation, Case Studies, Archival, Surveys, and Psychological Tests |
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Naturalistic Observation
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-Observing in a natural setting without them knowing
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Case Studies
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Study one person or one event and find out everything you can about it
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Archival
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-Get info that's already available to you - like Police Reports, etc
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Surveys
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-Ask people a lot of Q's about what you want to know
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Correlations: Predicting Social Behavior
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-Calculate the degree of association btw variables
-Goal is PREDICTION by understanding relationships btw variables |
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Correlational Coefficients
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-1.0 - +1.0
-Sign indicates the direction of the relationship -Positive - When both variables increase or decrease together -Negative - When A increases, B decreases --1.0 or +1.0 = perfect relationship -0.0 = no relationship |
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3rd Variable
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-Affects both other variables and is the reason for some correlation
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Correlation is NOT Causation
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-Because of 3rd Variables and Reverse Causation
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Role of Research in Science
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-Theory -> Test it -> Replicate it -> Accept Theory as True
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Theory
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-A set of principles that explain a set of observations
-Usually indicates specific causation -Has to be supported by data to be considered true |
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Control
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-Identical non-test related conditions for both groups allows us to isolate the variable of interest
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Random Assignment
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-Ensures that all extraneous variables exist evenly in both groups
-Can improve Internal Validity |
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Random Selection
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-Everyone in the poputlation you wish to apply your results to has an equal chance of participating in the study
-Ensures that your sample is representative of the population -Ensures External Validity |
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External Validity
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-Ability of a study to accurately generalize the sample to the population
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Psychological Realism
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-The extent to which the study itself makes you psychologically involved in the experiment
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Hawthorne Effect
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-People change their behavior when they know they're being studied
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Independent Variable
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-The variable that is changed to see if it has an effect on some other variable
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Dependent Variable
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-The variable measured by the researcher to see if it depends on the level of the independent variable
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Between-Participants Design
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-Looks for differences between different people
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Within-Participants Design
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-Looks for differences within the same people
-Each participant takes part in every condition of the study |
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Mixed Model Design
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-Has multiple factors involved - looks both within and btw participant differences depending on the factor
-Has 2 independent variables |
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ANOVA
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-ANalysis Of Variance
-Used to test for differences btw the means of groups of participants -Shows these differences: -Main effects: if the 2 means differ around 1 main independent variable -Interactions: involve 2 or more independent variables- try to see if the influence of one independent variable affects the 2nd ind. variable |
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Interaction Effects
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-Look at the effect of a particular combination of factors
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Moderation
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-One variable qualifies the relationship btw the other variables
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Mediation
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-When one variable "explains" the relationship btw the other variables
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Single-Factor Experiments
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-Have one independent variable
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Factorial Design
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-Have 2 or more independent variables
-2-way design |
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Informed Consent
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-Specifies the nature of the experiment and gets permission
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Deception
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-Needed to avoid "giving away" the purpose of the experiment
-Tells the participants what they're going to do, but not why |
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Debriefing
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-Explains everything, alleviates discomfort from the experiment, makes things right again
-When you tell them after the Deception |
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Experience Sampling Methods (ESM)
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-Uses signaling devices to alert participant to record their data
-Allows continuous and random data collection -Used often for attitude research, or emotions |
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Social Cognition
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The way we think about the world and ourselves
-Core Processes: -Attention -Interpretation -Judgment -Memory |
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Goals Behind Social Cognition
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-Being Accurate
-Conserving Mental Effort -Managing our self-image |
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Schema
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-A tool used to interpret things around us
-Used for identifying or categorizing things -Helps us decide how to interact with our environment -Keeps us from having to reinterpret the world around us constantly |
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Heuristic
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-A mental shortcut to help us remember things
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Self Fulfilling Prophecy
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-Have a Stereotype
-Act in a way consistent with that belief -Create stereotypical behavior because of your actions -Your expectations fulfill your actions |
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Representative Heuristic
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-The tendency to classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
-We classify things according to how well they fit into a category we already know about -Prevents us from using better info like base rates |
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Availability Heuristic
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-People tend to make judgments based on info that is most easily brought to mind
-EX: elephant/denmark trick |
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Anchoring Heuristic
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-People tend to use a generic starting point and then adjust slightly from there when making decisions
-EX: bargaining at a flea market |
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Reconstructive Memory
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-Recalling What Never Happened
-Memory is changeable and we change it over time |
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Illusory Correlation
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-The belief that 2 variables are realted to one another when they're not
-EX: horoscopes or Hot Hand -We believe in them because we are more likely to notice when our expectations are confirmed than when they're not |
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Clustering Illusion
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-When things happen in runs people believe that they couldnt have happened by chance
-OOXXXXOOXO = more real chance than XOXOXOXOXOXOX |
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Bartlett
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-First studied memory and came up with schemas
-Did the 'War of the Ghosts' experiment -People remember the most salient things and then exaggerate them |
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Hindsight Bias
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-The "i knew it all along" phenomenon
-The tendency to overestimate the predictability of known outcomes after the fact |
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Perseverence Effect
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-The tendency to make self-evaluations that are consistent with info we are given, wven when we learn that info was false
-We are biased in our analysis of ourselves -Is related to the concept of availability -Is often applied to our assessment of our own abilities |
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Counterfactual Thoughts
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-Reflections on how past events may have turned out differently
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Upward Counterfactuals
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-Thinking about how events could have turned out better
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Downward Counterfactuals
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-Thinking about how events could have turned out worse
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False Consensus Effect
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-The tendency to assume that other people share our own attitudes and behaviors to a greater extent than is actually the cas
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Display Rules
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-Norms in a culture for how and when emotions should be expressed
-Ex: facial expressions |
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Attribution Theory
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-Examines how we answer why an event or behavior occured
-Person/Situation paradigm comes into play here -inernal (person) vs. external (situation) |
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Kelley's Covariation Model of Attribution
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-We analyze whether a behavior is correlated with internal factors, external factors, or a combo of both when deciding why the behavior occured
-People are "intuitive scientists" when trying to make attributional decisions -Makes us analyze: Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency |
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Consensus
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-Do other people do this behavior?
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Distinctiveness
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-Does this person do this behaviro in other situations?
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Consistency
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-Does this person consistently do this behavior in this situation?
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Discounting Principle
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-If we can see an external cause for behaviors, we reduce the perceived importance of internal causes for that behavior
-EX: Internal or External Attribution |
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Augmenting Principle
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-The perceived role of a cause in producing behavior will be increased (or augmented) when other causes (that should work against the behavior) are present
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Correspondence Bias
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-Overestimate the effect of internal factors and underestimate the role of situational factors
-EX: bad drivers |
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Cultural Context
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-May influence the correspondence bias
-Individualism vs Collectivism of the people and media |
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Actor/Observer Difference
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-We tend to focus on dispositional (internal) causes
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Perceptual Salience
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-Focus on the individual in other's behaviors for individual cultures but focus on situation in our own behaviors because we dont want to see flaws
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Social Comparison
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-We use others as a means of judging our own abilities
-Normally we use appropriate comparisons, but not always |
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Upward Social Comparison
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-Comparing ourselves to someone who is better off than we are on a given dimension
-Comparing to professionals/celebrities |
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Relative Deprivation
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-A feeling of resentment about our outcomes based on comparisons with better-off others
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Downward Social Comparison
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-Comparing ourselves to someone who is worse off than we are on a given dimension
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Self-Perception Theory
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-We use our own behavior to infer our internal states, including likes, dislikes, attitudes, beliefs...
-"i'm eating pistachio ice cream; i must like it" |
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Overjustification Effect
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-Our preference towards something that is already intrinsically rewarding can be reduced by adding an extrinsic reward
-Adding a good grade to the best picture colored by kids can make it less fun |
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The Looking Glass Self
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-Our self-concept is made in party by our understanding of how others see us - smart, generous, cautious...
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Self Serving Judgments
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-Perceptions or comparisons that enhance the perceived worth of the self
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Bias Blindspot
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-The tendency to think that biases and errors are more common in others than in ourselves
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Above Average Effect
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-On Average, people think they are better than average for positive traits
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Unrealistic Optimism
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-On average, people think they are more likely to experience good outcomes and are less likely to experience bad things than the average person
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Egocentric
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-When people cant look outside of what happens to them
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Self-Efficacy
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-The belief that we are capable of performing a particular behavior that is required for a certain goal
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Illusion of Control
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-The tendency to overestimate our control of situations and events - like choosing lottery tickets
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Self Discrepancy Theory
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-Looks at what happens when our self-views conflict
-Discrepancy btw actual and ideal leads to depression and sadness -Discrepancy btw actual and ought leads to guilt |
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Actual Self
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-How people believe they really are
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Ideal Self
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-How people would ideally like to be
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Ought Self
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-How people think they ought to be
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Self-Presentation
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-Strategically presenting ourselves in different ways to achieve a positive perception in the eyes of others
-To get others to like us or respect us |
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Ingratiation
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-Change your behavior to act like those you like
-Brown-nosing, verbal flattery... |
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Creating Similarity
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-We tend to like people who are similar to us in looks, attitudes, etc
-It can be subconscious -Opinion Conformity |
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Multiple Audience Dilemma
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-The problem faced when trying to appear likeable to multiple audiences at the same time
-We manage it by: -Segregating the audience -Moderating our presentations |
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Staging Performance
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-We seek opportunities to demonstrate our competance
-EX: hosting a book club to impress Princeton Grad |
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Claiming Competece (brag)
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-Simply saying things to seem confident
-They are not always tolerated |
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Confederate
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-Someone working with the experiment that fakes the hoped result of the experiment
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Self-Handicapping
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-The tendency to seek or create obstacles in order to have an explanation in the case of potential failure
-EX: drinking 32 beers before a test |
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Detecting Deception Accuracy
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-It is not easy
-Only slightly over chance for all but Secret Service Agents (64%) |
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Dispositions
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-Consistencies across time and settings in people
-Like traits - enduring individual differences -Quiet, introverted, loud... |
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Self Concept
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-The info about ourselves that resides in memory
-Formed through social comparison and self-perception |
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Identity
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-The collection of important concepts that define an individual
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Spontaneous Self-Concept
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-The collection of aspects of identity that are available to awareness at any time
-Priming these aspects brings them to the forefront of consciousness -Distinctiveness of an identity trait in a given solution makes that aspect of identity salient |
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Social Identity
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-Beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging (ingroup)
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Ingroup
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-Groups that you belong to: family, school, etc
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Outgroup
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-Groups you dont belong to: other schools, or other families
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Social Identity Theory
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-Addresses our identification with a group and the benefits we derive from it
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BIRGing
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-Basking In Reflected Glory - of those in our ingroup
-Like Bruce Weber |
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CORFing
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-Cutting Off Reflected Failure
-Like Ron Zook - no self esteem to be gained there |
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Minimal Intergroup Paradigm
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-Experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination
-EX: Students give preferential treatment to others who they believe share irrelevant traits - even if random |
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Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
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-Examines how we strike a balance btw similarity (with an ingroup) and distinctiveness (as an individual)
-We over compensate to show that we are diff sometimes -Collectivistic people will identify themselves at least 50% with their groups -Individualistic people identify themselves by their traits |
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Self Esteem
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-Liking for the self
=A disposition - people's judge of their own worthiness -Sources are: personal experience, reflected appraisal by others relationships, social comparison, and group comparison |
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Correlates of Self-Esteem
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-People with high SE typically have more certain self views
-Peopls with high SE engage in self-serving judgments -People with high SE are happier than those with low -People with high SE have greater satisfaction with their personal relationships -(But the 2nd two have no causation) |
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Narcissism
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-Represents an exaggerated love of the self
-People with secure high SE confidently hold positive self views -People with defensive high SE hold positive self-vies that are fragile and vulnerable to threat |
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Gender Behavior
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-To save time, we often sharpen the distinctions btw groups and soften the differences within groups
-We assume stereotypes are sharper than they actually are -Clearest gender difference is for homocide -There are biological explanations and Cultural explanations |
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Self Monitoring
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-Individual differences in relying on external or internal cues to guide behavior
-Person who is always the same across situations = low -Person who changes everything with the situation = high |
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Need For Cognition
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-People with high think a lot and need to know how things work
-People with low think less and dont care how it works as long as it does |
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Acheivement Motivation
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-Individual differences in performance goals
-Test it with the Thematic Apperception Test |
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Thematic Apperception Test
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-Show people a sense of ambiguous pictures and the subject has to write a series of stories about the pictures which are analyzed for themes
-People project what they're thinking about to the people in the pictures |
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Uncertainty Orientation
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-Individual differences in learning new things about oneself
-People with high Uncertainty Orientation ask Q's to get rid of uncertainty of their ability -People with high Certainty Orientation knew what was inside them and didnt need clarification |
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Dispositional Optimism
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-Associated with lower distress in several areas
-Intelligence is positively correlate with health and longevity |
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Attitude
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-An individual's evaluation of a target
-They are: -Affective: our feelings or beliefs toward the attitude target -Behavioral: our intention to act towards the target, on our memory of our past behavior towards it -Cognitive: our knowledge of the attitude target |
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Ambivalent Attitudes
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-Attitudes that include both positive and negative elements
-EX: ice cream tastes so good but cognitive says it makes you fat |
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Object Appraisal
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-Attitudes provide us with a quick evaluation of an object, allowing us to decide hot to act towards it (approach vs avoid)
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Value-Expression
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-Attitudes help us communicate info about ourselves and our beliefs
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Mere Exposure Effect
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-Our attitude towards a target can be made more positive by merely being frequently exposed to it
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Attitudes Come From
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-Learning: exposure, conditioning, knowlege evaluation, behavior evaluation
-Socialization: parents, reference groups -Genes |
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Affective Response
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-Attitude targets that consistently CAUSE positive or negative feelings will be evaluated as being either positive or negative
-EX: rainbows, garbage, sushi |
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Evaluative Conditioning
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-Attitude targets that are ASSOCIATED with positive or negative feelings will be evaluated as being either positive or negative
-EX: pavlov's dog, wheelchairs... |
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Knowledge Evaluation
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-Our cognitive understanding of and beliefs about a target, how it operates, and what it means affects our attitude toward it
-EX: drillin in the arctic |
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Behavior Evaluation
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-Our knowledge of how we have behaved towards a target IN THE PAST
influences our attitude toward it -EX: seat belts |
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Heredity in Attitudes
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Genes can cause certain circumstances that might lead us to hold a specific attitude
-But there is not always causation btw them |
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Explicit Attitudes
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-Those that we are conscious of or able to express
-Accessed using self-report measures |
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Implicit Attitudes
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-Exist below consciousness, cannot be verbally expressed
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Liker-Type Scales
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-Respondent indicates the extent to which he/she agrees or disagrees with a series of statements
-Stongly disagree <--> Strongly agree |
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Thurstone Scales
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-Respondent indicates which statements, both positive and negative, he/she agrees with - does not assess degree the way people feel
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Socially Desirable Responding
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-Respondents sometimes respond to such measures in a way they think is socially appropriate rather than in a way that honestly reflects their true attitude
-EX: attitudes towards people with disabilities |
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Implicit Association Test
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-Measures implicit attitudes by recording reaction times
-Online test with pictures and response time |
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Info Processing
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-How we perceive the world and how we interpret the info we receive
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Selective Perception
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-We pay attention to and remeber the things that are consistent with our attitudes
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Behavior
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-Our attitudes are very useful in predicting our behavior
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Attitude Strength
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-Strongly held attitudes are better predictors of behavior
-4 Parts: -Extremity -Importance -Direct Experience -Accessibility |
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Compatability Principle
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-The measure of attitude and the measure of behavior have to match in terms of specificity/generality in order for the attitude measure to predict the behavior
-General attitudes with General behaviors -Specific attitudes with Specific behaviors |
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Fishbein and Azjen's Theory of Reasoned Action
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-Behavior is preceded by behavioral intentions, intentions to perform a behavior
-If you wanted to change a behavior, you could try to change the behavioral intentions -Later changed to Theory of Planned Behavior with the addition of perceived behavioral control |
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Behavior Model
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Attitude + Subjective Norm + Perceived Behavioral Control --> Behavioral Intention --> Behavior
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Social Psychologist
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-People interested in how other people affect every aspect of indivdual's lives, including thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
-Study how individuals process info about other people and how they store this info in memory -They take the perspective of individuals in a social setting rather than focusing only on objective features of the situation |
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Behaviorism
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-An approach in psychology which assumes that behavior can be explained purely in terms of stimulus-response connections established through experience and reinforcement
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Gestalt Theory
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-An approach in psychology which assumes that people’s overall, subjective interpretations of objects are more important than the object’s physical features, and that objects are perceived in their totality, as a unit, rather than in terms of their individual features
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Social Contract
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-The idea that human societies have developed basic rules of social and moral conduct, which members of the societies implicitly agree to follow
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First Sociologist and Psychologist Textbook writers
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-Ross
-McDougall |
