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146 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Reductionism
The view that all scientific explanations should aim to be based on a lower level of analysis: psychology in terms of physiology, physiology in terms of chemistry, chemistry in terms of physics
Verbal learning
A term applied to an approach to memory that relies principally on the learning of lists of words and nonsense syllables
Gestalt psychology
an approach to psychology that was strong in Germany in the 1930s and that attempted to use perceptual principles to understand memory and reasoning
Schema
Proposed by Bartlett to explain how our knowledge of the world is structured and influences the way in which new information is stored and subsequently recalled
Model
a method of expressing a theory more precisely, allowing predictions to be made and tested
Modal model
a term applied to the model of memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
environment>sensory memory>STM>LTM
Sensory memory
A term applied to the brief storage of information within a specific modality
Iconic memory
A term applied to the brief storage of visual memory
Masking
A process by which the perception and/or storage of a stimulus is influenced by events occuring immediately before presentation (forward masking) or more commonly after (backward masking)
Echoic memory
a term sometimes applied to auditory sensory memory
Short term memory
a term applied to the retention of small amounts of material over periods of a few seconds
Working memory
a memory system that underpins our capacity to "keep things in mind" when performing complex tasks
long-term memory
a system or systems assumed to underpin the capacity to store information over long periods of time
explicit/declarative memory
memory that is open to intentional retrieval, whether based on a recollecting personal events /episodic memory or facts/semantic memory
-Past experiences
that are consciously brought to mind
implicit/nondeclarative memory
Retrieval of information from long-term memory through performance rather than explicit conscious recall or recognition
-A memory not
known to exist; memory that is
unconsciously retrieved
semantic memory
a system that is assumed to store accumulative knowledge of the world
episodic memory
a system that is assumed to underpin the capacity to remember specifc events
mental time travel
a term coined by Tulving to emphasize the way in which episodic memory allows us to relived the past and use this information to imagine the future
classical conditioning
a learning procedure whereby a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) that is paired repeatedly with a response-evoking stimulus (e.g. meat powder) will come to evoke that response (salivation)
priming
the process whereby presentation of an item influences the processing of a subsequent item, either making it easier to process (positive priming) or more difficult (negative priming)
-When cues are used to
activate hidden memories
electroencephalogram (EEG)
a device for recording the electrical potentials of the brain through a series of electrode placed on the scalp
even-related potentials (ERP)
a method using electroencephalography, in which the electrophysiological reaction of the brain to specific stimuli is tracked over time.
neuroimaging
a term applied to a range of methods whereby the brain can be studied, either in terms of its anatomical structure (structural imaging) or its operation (functional imaging).
positron emission tomography(PET)
a method whereby radioactively labeled substances are introduced into the bloodstream and subsequently monitored to measure physiological activation
magnetic resonance imaging(MRI)
a method of brain imaging that relies on detecting changes induced by a powerful magnetic field
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
a system whereby the activity of neurons within the brain is detected through the tiny magnetic fields that their activity generates
synesthesia
the tendency for one sense modality to evoke another
mind map
a diagram in which words or other items are linked in various ways around a central key word
implementation intentions
intentions specifying in detail how individuals are going to achieve the goals they have set themselves
digit span
maximum number of sequentially presented digits that can reliably be recalled in the correct order
working memory span
term applied to a range of complex memory span tasks in which simultaneous storage and processing is required
chunking
the process of combining a number of items into a single chunk typically on the basis of LTM
the Peterson task
STM forgetting task in which a small amount of material is tested after a brief delay filled by a rehearsal-preventing task
free recall
a method whereby participants are presented with a sequence of items which they are subsequently required to recall in any order they wish
primacy effect
a tendency for the first few items in a sequence to be better recalled than most of the following items
recency effect
a tendency for the last few items in a list to be well recalled
long-term recency
a tendency for the last few items to be well recalled under conditions of long-term memory
phonological loop
term applied be Baddeley and Hitch to component their model responsible for the temporary storage of speech-like information
Phonological similarity effect
a tendency for immediate serial recall of verbal material to be reduced, when the items are similar in sound
articulatory suppression
a technique for disrupting verbal rehearsal by requiring participants to continuously repeat a spoken item
word length effect
a tendency for verbal memory span to decrease when longer words are used
nonsense syllables
pronounceable but meaningless consonant items designed to study learning without the complicating factor of meaning
irrelevant sound effect
a tendency for verbal STM to be disrupted by concurrent fluctuating sounds, including both speech and music
double dissociation
a term particularly used in neuropsychology when two patient groups show opposite patterns of defict, e.g. normal STM and impaired LTM, vs. normal LTM and impaired STM
corsi block tapping
visuo-spatial counterpart to digit span involving an array of blocks that the tester taps in a sequence and the patient attempts to copy
visuo-spatial STM
retention of visual and/or spatial information over brief periods of time
levels of processing
the theory proposed by Craik and Lockhart that asserts that items that are more deeply processed will be better remembered
semantic coding
processing an item in terms of its meaning, hence relating it to other information in LTM
nonword repetition test
a test whereby participants hear and attempt to repeat back nonwords that gradually increase in length
episodic buffer
a component of the Baddeley and Hitch working memory model which assumes a multidimentional code, allowing the vvarious subcomponents of working memory to interact with long-term memory
visual cache
a component of Logie's model of visual working memory. it forms a counterpart to the phonological store and is maintained by the inner scribe, a counterpart to phonological rehearsal
supervisory attentional system (SAS)
a component of the model proposed by Normal and Shallice to account for the attentional control of action
confabulation
recollection of something that did not happen
binding
term used to refer to the linking o f features into objects (e.g. color red, shape square, into a red square) or of events into coherent episodes.
inhibition
a general term applied to mechanisms that suppress other activities. the term can be applied to a precise physiological mechanism or to a more general phenomenon as in proactive and retroactive inhibition, whereby memory for an item is impaired by competition from earlier or later items
resource sharing
use of limited attentional capacity to maintain two or more simultaneous activities
task switching
a process whereby a limited capacity system maintains activity on two or more tasks by switching between them
long-term working memory
concept proposed by Ericsson and Kintsch to account for the way in which long0term memory can be used as a working memory to maintain complex cognitive activity
spatial working memory
system involved in temporarily retaining information regarding spatial location
object memory
system that temporarily retains information concerning visual features such as color and shape
Memory
Active system that stores,
organizes, alters, and recovers
(retrieves) information
Encoding
Converting information into
a useable form
Storage
Holding this information in
memory
Retrieval
Taking memories out of
storage
Iconic
A fleeting mental image or visual
representation
Echoic
After a sound is heard, a brief
continuation of the activity in the auditory
system
Working Memory -
Part of STM; like a
mental “scratchpad”
Selective Attention
Focusing
(voluntarily) on a selected portion of sensory
input (e.g., selective hearing)
“Cocktail Party” Phenomena
Phonetically
Storing information by
sound; how most things are stored in STM
Recoding
Reorganizing or modifying
information in STM
‒ Information Chunks: Bits of information that are grouped into
larger chunks
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating
information silently to prolong its presence in
STM
Elaborative Rehearsal
Links new
information with existing memories and
knowledge in LTM
Good way to transfer STM information into LTM
Procedural
Long-term memories of
conditioned responses and learned skills
(e.g., driving a car)
Declarative
LTM factual information
‒Semantic Memory: Impersonal facts and
everyday knowledge
Subset of Declarative Memory
‒Episodic: Personal experiences linked with
specific times and places
Subset of Declarative Memory
“Tip-of-the Tongue”
(TOT) Phenomenon
- Feeling that a memory is available but not
quite retrievable
Recall
Direct retrieval of facts or
information
Serial Position Effect
Hardest to recall items are in the middle of a list
Recognition Memory
Previously learned
material is correctly identified
‒ Usually superior to RECALL
Distractors
False items included with a
correct item
‒ e.g., incorrect choices on multiple-choice tests
‒ Hard to write “good” distractors!
 (too hard; too easy; too obvious; too trivial, etc.)
False Positive
False sense of recognition
Relearning
Learning again something that
was previously learned
Internal Images
Mental pictures
Eidetic Imagery
Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be
scanned or retained for at least 30
seconds
• Typically projected onto a “plain”
surface, like a blank piece of paper
• Usually disappears during adolescence
and is rare by adulthood
Encoding Failure
When a memory was never
formed in the first place
Memory Traces
Physical changes in nerve
cells or brain activity that occur when memories are
stored
Memory Decay
When memory traces become
weaker; fading or weakening of memories
Disuse
Theory that memory traces weaken when
memories are not used or retrieved
CURVE of FORGETTING
This graph shows the amount
remembered (nonsense syllables) after varying lengths of
time. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show
early losses followed by a long, gradual decline
Memory e o y Cue
Any stimulus associated with a
memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory
‒A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time
State-Dependent Learning:
When memory
retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body
state is the same at the time of learning AND the
time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved
Interference
Tendency for new memories
to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice
versa
Internal Images
Mental pictures
Eidetic Imagery
Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be
scanned or retained for at least 30
seconds
• Typically projected onto a “plain”
surface, like a blank piece of paper
• Usually disappears during adolescence
and is rare by adulthood
Encoding Failure
When a memory was never
formed in the first place
Memory Traces
Physical changes in nerve
cells or brain activity that occur when memories are
stored
Memory Decay
When memory traces become
weaker; fading or weakening of memories
Disuse
Theory that memory traces weaken when
memories are not used or retrieved
CURVE of FORGETTING
This graph shows the amount
remembered (nonsense syllables) after varying lengths of
time. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show
early losses followed by a long, gradual decline
Memory e o y Cue
Any stimulus associated with a
memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory
‒A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time
State-Dependent Learning:
When memory
retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body
state is the same at the time of learning AND the
time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved
Interference
Tendency for new memories
to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice
versa
Internal Images
Mental pictures
Eidetic Imagery
Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be
scanned or retained for at least 30
seconds
• Typically projected onto a “plain”
surface, like a blank piece of paper
• Usually disappears during adolescence
and is rare by adulthood
Encoding Failure
When a memory was never
formed in the first place
Memory Traces
Physical changes in nerve
cells or brain activity that occur when memories are
stored
Memory Decay
When memory traces become
weaker; fading or weakening of memories
Disuse
Theory that memory traces weaken when
memories are not used or retrieved
CURVE of FORGETTING
This graph shows the amount
remembered (nonsense syllables) after varying lengths of
time. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show
early losses followed by a long, gradual decline
Memory e o y Cue
Any stimulus associated with a
memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory
‒A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time
State-Dependent Learning
When memory
retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body
state is the same at the time of learning AND the
time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved
Interference
Tendency for new memories
to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice
versa
Retroactive Interference
Tendency for
NEW learning to interfere with retrieval of
OLD learning
Proactive Interference
Prior learning
inhibits (interferes with) recall of later learning
Positive Transfer
Mastery of one
task aids learning or performing another
Negative Transfer
Mastery of one
task conflicts with learning or performing
another
Negative “Technology Transfer”
from PSYC 128 Human Factors Psychology)
Repression
Unconsciously pushing
painful, embarrassing, or threatening
memories out of awareness/consciousness
‒ From Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
‒ Key Word: “...Unconsciously...”
Suppression
Consciously putting
something painful or threatening out of mind
or trying to keep it from entering awareness
Flashbulb” Memories
Memories created during times of personal
tragedy, accident, or other emotionally
significant events
‒Where were you when you heard that
terrorists had attacked the USA on
September 11th, 2001?
• Includes both Positive and Negative
events
• Problem? Not always Accurate
• But GREAT confidence is placed in them!
Mood on Memory
Subjects best
remembered a list of words when their mood during testing
was the same as their mood when they learned the words
Knowledge of Results
Feedback
allowing you to check your progress
Recitation
Summarizing aloud while you
are learning
Rehearsal
Reviewing information mentally
(silently)
Selection
Selecting most important
concepts to memorize
Organization
Organizing difficult items into
chunks; a type of reordering
Whole Learning
Studying an entire package
of information at once, like a poem
Part Learning
Studying subparts of a larger
body of information (like text chapters
Progressive Part Learning:
Breaking
learning task into a series of short sections
Serial Position Effect
Making most errors
while remembering the middle of the list
Overlearning
Studying is continued beyond
bare mastery
Spaced Practice
Alternating short study
sessions with brief rest periods
Massed Practice
Studying for long
periods without rest periods
‒ Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids
consolidation
‒ Hunger decreases retention
Cognitive Interview:
Technique used to
improve memories of eyewitnesses
Seven Sins of Memory
Transience
Stored information tends to
fade with passage of time
Seven Sins of Memory
Absent-Mindedness
Weak, poorly
encoded memories tend to cause absentmindedness
Seven Sins of Memory
Blocking
Not being able to recall a word or
a name that you know well
Seven Sins of Memory
Misattribution
Linking a memory with the
wrong source, time, or place
Seven Sins of Memory
Suggestibility
Suggestions and
misleading questions can implant information
that leads us to alter or revise our memories
Seven Sins of Memory
Bias
Memories are often distorted to match
our beliefs and expectations
Seven Sins of Memory
Persistence
Memories of traumatic
events may persist for many years
Seven Sins of Memory
Stoned
Memory limitations among certain
UCSC students that appear to related to
inhaling certain burning substances
The Stroop
Task
Assessing Executive Functioning.
colors of words of color
Mental Rotations
Are the two objects identical in their
3D shape, or is one a mirror image of
the other
Use past experiences to build mental
images of objects or events we have
never actually experienced •Imagination mimics the physical world •Time required to mentally rotate objects
directly related to the time required to
physically manipulate those objects
Mere Exposure: Emotional
Rewards of Familiarity
–Positive Response to liked Stimuli
–Negative response to disliked or
unknown Stimuli
–“Classical Conditioning”
Adaptive Learning
Must be able to learn to adapt to new
or unusual environments or situations
–“Tuned” to important information in an
environment or situation – “Untuned” to
those that are unimportant
–Presumed Survival Value (?)
seven sins of memory
Transience - Stored information tends to
fade with passage of time
• Absent-Mindedness - Weak, poorly
encoded memories tend to cause absentmindedness
• Blocking - Not being able to recall a word or
a name that you know well
• Misattribution - Linking a memory with the
wrong source, time, or place
Seven Sins of Memory (cont.)
• Suggestibility - Suggestions and
misleading questions can implant information
that leads us to alter or revise our memories
• Bias - Memories are often distorted to match
our beliefs and expectations
• Persistence - Memories of traumatic
events may persist for many years
• Stoned - Memory limitations among certain
UCSC students that appear to related to
inhaling certain burning substances