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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Reductionism
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The view that all scientific explanations should aim to be based on a lower level of analysis: psychology in terms of physiology, physiology in terms of chemistry, chemistry in terms of physics
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Verbal learning
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A term applied to an approach to memory that relies principally on the learning of lists of words and nonsense syllables
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Gestalt psychology
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an approach to psychology that was strong in Germany in the 1930s and that attempted to use perceptual principles to understand memory and reasoning
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Schema
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Proposed by Bartlett to explain how our knowledge of the world is structured and influences the way in which new information is stored and subsequently recalled
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Model
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a method of expressing a theory more precisely, allowing predictions to be made and tested
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Modal model
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a term applied to the model of memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
environment>sensory memory>STM>LTM |
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Sensory memory
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A term applied to the brief storage of information within a specific modality
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Iconic memory
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A term applied to the brief storage of visual memory
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Masking
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A process by which the perception and/or storage of a stimulus is influenced by events occuring immediately before presentation (forward masking) or more commonly after (backward masking)
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Echoic memory
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a term sometimes applied to auditory sensory memory
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Short term memory
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a term applied to the retention of small amounts of material over periods of a few seconds
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Working memory
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a memory system that underpins our capacity to "keep things in mind" when performing complex tasks
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long-term memory
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a system or systems assumed to underpin the capacity to store information over long periods of time
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explicit/declarative memory
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memory that is open to intentional retrieval, whether based on a recollecting personal events /episodic memory or facts/semantic memory
-Past experiences that are consciously brought to mind |
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implicit/nondeclarative memory
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Retrieval of information from long-term memory through performance rather than explicit conscious recall or recognition
-A memory not known to exist; memory that is unconsciously retrieved |
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semantic memory
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a system that is assumed to store accumulative knowledge of the world
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episodic memory
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a system that is assumed to underpin the capacity to remember specifc events
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mental time travel
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a term coined by Tulving to emphasize the way in which episodic memory allows us to relived the past and use this information to imagine the future
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classical conditioning
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a learning procedure whereby a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) that is paired repeatedly with a response-evoking stimulus (e.g. meat powder) will come to evoke that response (salivation)
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priming
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the process whereby presentation of an item influences the processing of a subsequent item, either making it easier to process (positive priming) or more difficult (negative priming)
-When cues are used to activate hidden memories |
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
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a device for recording the electrical potentials of the brain through a series of electrode placed on the scalp
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even-related potentials (ERP)
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a method using electroencephalography, in which the electrophysiological reaction of the brain to specific stimuli is tracked over time.
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neuroimaging
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a term applied to a range of methods whereby the brain can be studied, either in terms of its anatomical structure (structural imaging) or its operation (functional imaging).
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positron emission tomography(PET)
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a method whereby radioactively labeled substances are introduced into the bloodstream and subsequently monitored to measure physiological activation
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magnetic resonance imaging(MRI)
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a method of brain imaging that relies on detecting changes induced by a powerful magnetic field
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magnetoencephalography (MEG)
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a system whereby the activity of neurons within the brain is detected through the tiny magnetic fields that their activity generates
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synesthesia
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the tendency for one sense modality to evoke another
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mind map
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a diagram in which words or other items are linked in various ways around a central key word
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implementation intentions
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intentions specifying in detail how individuals are going to achieve the goals they have set themselves
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digit span
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maximum number of sequentially presented digits that can reliably be recalled in the correct order
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working memory span
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term applied to a range of complex memory span tasks in which simultaneous storage and processing is required
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chunking
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the process of combining a number of items into a single chunk typically on the basis of LTM
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the Peterson task
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STM forgetting task in which a small amount of material is tested after a brief delay filled by a rehearsal-preventing task
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free recall
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a method whereby participants are presented with a sequence of items which they are subsequently required to recall in any order they wish
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primacy effect
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a tendency for the first few items in a sequence to be better recalled than most of the following items
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recency effect
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a tendency for the last few items in a list to be well recalled
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long-term recency
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a tendency for the last few items to be well recalled under conditions of long-term memory
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phonological loop
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term applied be Baddeley and Hitch to component their model responsible for the temporary storage of speech-like information
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Phonological similarity effect
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a tendency for immediate serial recall of verbal material to be reduced, when the items are similar in sound
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articulatory suppression
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a technique for disrupting verbal rehearsal by requiring participants to continuously repeat a spoken item
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word length effect
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a tendency for verbal memory span to decrease when longer words are used
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nonsense syllables
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pronounceable but meaningless consonant items designed to study learning without the complicating factor of meaning
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irrelevant sound effect
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a tendency for verbal STM to be disrupted by concurrent fluctuating sounds, including both speech and music
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double dissociation
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a term particularly used in neuropsychology when two patient groups show opposite patterns of defict, e.g. normal STM and impaired LTM, vs. normal LTM and impaired STM
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corsi block tapping
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visuo-spatial counterpart to digit span involving an array of blocks that the tester taps in a sequence and the patient attempts to copy
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visuo-spatial STM
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retention of visual and/or spatial information over brief periods of time
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levels of processing
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the theory proposed by Craik and Lockhart that asserts that items that are more deeply processed will be better remembered
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semantic coding
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processing an item in terms of its meaning, hence relating it to other information in LTM
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nonword repetition test
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a test whereby participants hear and attempt to repeat back nonwords that gradually increase in length
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episodic buffer
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a component of the Baddeley and Hitch working memory model which assumes a multidimentional code, allowing the vvarious subcomponents of working memory to interact with long-term memory
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visual cache
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a component of Logie's model of visual working memory. it forms a counterpart to the phonological store and is maintained by the inner scribe, a counterpart to phonological rehearsal
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supervisory attentional system (SAS)
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a component of the model proposed by Normal and Shallice to account for the attentional control of action
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confabulation
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recollection of something that did not happen
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binding
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term used to refer to the linking o f features into objects (e.g. color red, shape square, into a red square) or of events into coherent episodes.
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inhibition
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a general term applied to mechanisms that suppress other activities. the term can be applied to a precise physiological mechanism or to a more general phenomenon as in proactive and retroactive inhibition, whereby memory for an item is impaired by competition from earlier or later items
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resource sharing
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use of limited attentional capacity to maintain two or more simultaneous activities
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task switching
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a process whereby a limited capacity system maintains activity on two or more tasks by switching between them
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long-term working memory
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concept proposed by Ericsson and Kintsch to account for the way in which long0term memory can be used as a working memory to maintain complex cognitive activity
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spatial working memory
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system involved in temporarily retaining information regarding spatial location
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object memory
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system that temporarily retains information concerning visual features such as color and shape
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Memory
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Active system that stores,
organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) information |
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Encoding
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Converting information into
a useable form |
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Storage
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Holding this information in
memory |
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Retrieval
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Taking memories out of
storage |
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Iconic
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A fleeting mental image or visual
representation |
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Echoic
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After a sound is heard, a brief
continuation of the activity in the auditory system |
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Working Memory -
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Part of STM; like a
mental “scratchpad” |
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Selective Attention
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Focusing
(voluntarily) on a selected portion of sensory input (e.g., selective hearing) “Cocktail Party” Phenomena |
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Phonetically
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Storing information by
sound; how most things are stored in STM |
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Recoding
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Reorganizing or modifying
information in STM ‒ Information Chunks: Bits of information that are grouped into larger chunks |
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Maintenance Rehearsal
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Repeating
information silently to prolong its presence in STM |
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Elaborative Rehearsal
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Links new
information with existing memories and knowledge in LTM Good way to transfer STM information into LTM |
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Procedural
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Long-term memories of
conditioned responses and learned skills (e.g., driving a car) |
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Declarative
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LTM factual information
‒Semantic Memory: Impersonal facts and everyday knowledge Subset of Declarative Memory ‒Episodic: Personal experiences linked with specific times and places Subset of Declarative Memory |
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“Tip-of-the Tongue”
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(TOT) Phenomenon
- Feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable |
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Recall
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Direct retrieval of facts or
information |
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Serial Position Effect
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Hardest to recall items are in the middle of a list
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Recognition Memory
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Previously learned
material is correctly identified ‒ Usually superior to RECALL |
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Distractors
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False items included with a
correct item ‒ e.g., incorrect choices on multiple-choice tests ‒ Hard to write “good” distractors! (too hard; too easy; too obvious; too trivial, etc.) |
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False Positive
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False sense of recognition
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Relearning
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Learning again something that
was previously learned |
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Internal Images
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Mental pictures
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Eidetic Imagery
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Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds • Typically projected onto a “plain” surface, like a blank piece of paper • Usually disappears during adolescence and is rare by adulthood |
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Encoding Failure
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When a memory was never
formed in the first place |
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Memory Traces
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Physical changes in nerve
cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored |
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Memory Decay
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When memory traces become
weaker; fading or weakening of memories |
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Disuse
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Theory that memory traces weaken when
memories are not used or retrieved |
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CURVE of FORGETTING
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This graph shows the amount
remembered (nonsense syllables) after varying lengths of time. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show early losses followed by a long, gradual decline |
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Memory e o y Cue
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Any stimulus associated with a
memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory ‒A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time |
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State-Dependent Learning:
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When memory
retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body state is the same at the time of learning AND the time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved |
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Interference
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Tendency for new memories
to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice versa |
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Internal Images
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Mental pictures
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Eidetic Imagery
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Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds • Typically projected onto a “plain” surface, like a blank piece of paper • Usually disappears during adolescence and is rare by adulthood |
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Encoding Failure
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When a memory was never
formed in the first place |
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Memory Traces
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Physical changes in nerve
cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored |
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Memory Decay
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When memory traces become
weaker; fading or weakening of memories |
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Disuse
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Theory that memory traces weaken when
memories are not used or retrieved |
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CURVE of FORGETTING
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This graph shows the amount
remembered (nonsense syllables) after varying lengths of time. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show early losses followed by a long, gradual decline |
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Memory e o y Cue
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Any stimulus associated with a
memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory ‒A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time |
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State-Dependent Learning:
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When memory
retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body state is the same at the time of learning AND the time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved |
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Interference
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Tendency for new memories
to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice versa |
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Internal Images
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Mental pictures
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Eidetic Imagery
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Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds • Typically projected onto a “plain” surface, like a blank piece of paper • Usually disappears during adolescence and is rare by adulthood |
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Encoding Failure
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When a memory was never
formed in the first place |
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Memory Traces
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Physical changes in nerve
cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored |
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Memory Decay
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When memory traces become
weaker; fading or weakening of memories |
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Disuse
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Theory that memory traces weaken when
memories are not used or retrieved |
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CURVE of FORGETTING
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This graph shows the amount
remembered (nonsense syllables) after varying lengths of time. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show early losses followed by a long, gradual decline |
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Memory e o y Cue
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Any stimulus associated with a
memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory ‒A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time |
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State-Dependent Learning
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When memory
retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body state is the same at the time of learning AND the time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved |
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Interference
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Tendency for new memories
to impair retrieval of older memories, and vice versa |
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Retroactive Interference
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Tendency for
NEW learning to interfere with retrieval of OLD learning |
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Proactive Interference
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Prior learning
inhibits (interferes with) recall of later learning |
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Positive Transfer
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Mastery of one
task aids learning or performing another |
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Negative Transfer
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Mastery of one
task conflicts with learning or performing another |
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Negative “Technology Transfer”
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from PSYC 128 Human Factors Psychology)
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Repression
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Unconsciously pushing
painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness/consciousness ‒ From Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory ‒ Key Word: “...Unconsciously...” |
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Suppression
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Consciously putting
something painful or threatening out of mind or trying to keep it from entering awareness |
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Flashbulb” Memories
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Memories created during times of personal
tragedy, accident, or other emotionally significant events ‒Where were you when you heard that terrorists had attacked the USA on September 11th, 2001? • Includes both Positive and Negative events • Problem? Not always Accurate • But GREAT confidence is placed in them! |
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Mood on Memory
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Subjects best
remembered a list of words when their mood during testing was the same as their mood when they learned the words |
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Knowledge of Results
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Feedback
allowing you to check your progress |
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Recitation
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Summarizing aloud while you
are learning |
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Rehearsal
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Reviewing information mentally
(silently) |
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Selection
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Selecting most important
concepts to memorize |
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Organization
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Organizing difficult items into
chunks; a type of reordering |
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Whole Learning
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Studying an entire package
of information at once, like a poem |
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Part Learning
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Studying subparts of a larger
body of information (like text chapters |
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Progressive Part Learning:
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Breaking
learning task into a series of short sections |
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Serial Position Effect
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Making most errors
while remembering the middle of the list |
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Overlearning
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Studying is continued beyond
bare mastery |
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Spaced Practice
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Alternating short study
sessions with brief rest periods |
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Massed Practice
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Studying for long
periods without rest periods ‒ Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids consolidation ‒ Hunger decreases retention |
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Cognitive Interview:
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Technique used to
improve memories of eyewitnesses |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Transience |
Stored information tends to
fade with passage of time |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Absent-Mindedness |
Weak, poorly
encoded memories tend to cause absentmindedness |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Blocking |
Not being able to recall a word or
a name that you know well |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Misattribution |
Linking a memory with the
wrong source, time, or place |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Suggestibility |
Suggestions and
misleading questions can implant information that leads us to alter or revise our memories |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Bias |
Memories are often distorted to match
our beliefs and expectations |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Persistence |
Memories of traumatic
events may persist for many years |
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Seven Sins of Memory
Stoned |
Memory limitations among certain
UCSC students that appear to related to inhaling certain burning substances |
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The Stroop
Task |
Assessing Executive Functioning.
colors of words of color |
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Mental Rotations
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Are the two objects identical in their
3D shape, or is one a mirror image of the other Use past experiences to build mental images of objects or events we have never actually experienced •Imagination mimics the physical world •Time required to mentally rotate objects directly related to the time required to physically manipulate those objects |
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Mere Exposure: Emotional
Rewards of Familiarity |
–Positive Response to liked Stimuli
–Negative response to disliked or unknown Stimuli –“Classical Conditioning” |
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Adaptive Learning
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Must be able to learn to adapt to new
or unusual environments or situations –“Tuned” to important information in an environment or situation – “Untuned” to those that are unimportant –Presumed Survival Value (?) |
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seven sins of memory
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Transience - Stored information tends to
fade with passage of time • Absent-Mindedness - Weak, poorly encoded memories tend to cause absentmindedness • Blocking - Not being able to recall a word or a name that you know well • Misattribution - Linking a memory with the wrong source, time, or place Seven Sins of Memory (cont.) • Suggestibility - Suggestions and misleading questions can implant information that leads us to alter or revise our memories • Bias - Memories are often distorted to match our beliefs and expectations • Persistence - Memories of traumatic events may persist for many years • Stoned - Memory limitations among certain UCSC students that appear to related to inhaling certain burning substances |