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293 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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psychology
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the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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Wilhelm Wundt
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father of psychology
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William James
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father of American psychology
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positive psychology
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the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
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hypothesis
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educated guess - testable prediction
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sample
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small portion of the population
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population
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group being tested
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independent variable
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what is being manipulated; affects DV
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dependent variable
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affected by IV
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placebo
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fake drug, experimental results caused by expectations alone
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control group
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stays the same, serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
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double-blind procedure
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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
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naturalistic observation method (field study)
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research method by naturally observing
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experimental research
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research method by experimenting
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correlational research
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research method, studying the measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
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spinal cord
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important part of CNS
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neuron
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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
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dendrite
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receives messages and conducts them towards the cell body
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axon
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sends out messages
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neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
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endorphins
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natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
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central nervous system
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the brain and spinal cord
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occipital lobes
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back of head, includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
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peripheral nervous system
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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
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autonomic nervous system
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part of the peripheral nervous system, vital functions
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sympathetic system
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part of the autonomic nervous system, excites
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parasympathetic system
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part of autonomic nervous system, calms down
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brain stem
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responsible for automatic survival functions, connects spinal cord to brain
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somatic nervous system
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part of the peripheral nervous system, in charge of the muscles and senses
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frontal lobes
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reasoning, speaking, muscle movements
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parietal lobes
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top of head, coordination, touch
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temporal lobes
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hearing
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Broca's area
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part of the frontal lobe, involves speaking
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Wernicke's area
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part of the frontal lobe, language comprehension
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cerebellum
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"little brain", coordinates muscle movements
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hippocampus
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involved in memory, part of limbic system
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limbic system
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a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
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hypothalamus
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below thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
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thalamus
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relay station where info related to senses (except smell) passes through
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amygdala
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fear, two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.
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corpus callosum
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large band of neural fibers that connects left and right hemispheres
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endocrine system
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the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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hormones
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chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.
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pituitary gland
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regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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plasticity
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ability to change
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pons
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keeps you awake
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medulla
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base of brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing
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longitudinal study
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same people over a long period of time
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cross-sectional study
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study of different aged people at the same time
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nature-nurture
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effect of nature (biology) vs nurture (environment)
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cohort effects
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describe variations in the characteristics of an area of study
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dizygotic twins
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fraternal, fertilized by 2 sperms
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monozygotic twins
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identical, fertilized by one sperm
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teratogens
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agents, such as chemical or environmental toxins, that can affect the fetus
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fetal alcohol syndrome
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causes mental retardation
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Piaget
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cognitive development
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cognitive development
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development of brain
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sensory-motor stage
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the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
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preoperational thinking
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the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
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concrete-operational thinking
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the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
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formal-operational thinking
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the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
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assimilation
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interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas.
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accomodation
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adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
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object permanence
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the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
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egocentrism
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the preoperational child’s difficulty in taking another’s point of view
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conservation
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properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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imprinting
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certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
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Lorenz
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geese and imprinting
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Ainsworth
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secure versus insecure attachment -
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Kagan
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temperament and genetics play a more important role in how a child responds in an anxiety provoking situation than relationship with mother
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Harlow
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monkeys, tested secure attachment
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attachment
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an emotional tie with another person
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secure attachment
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easily soothed
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resistant attachment
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hard to soothe upon return
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avoidant attachment
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ignoring mother
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resistant attachment
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avoiding mother
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stranger anxiety
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bothered by strangers
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authoritative parenting
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strict, but warmth
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authoritarian parenting
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no warmth, strict
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temperament
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easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm up
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socioemotional development
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ff
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permissive parenting
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warmth, no rules
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Levinson
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adult development
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Erikson's eight stages of social development
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first four take place in cihldhood; last four in adolescence and adulthood
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sensation
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the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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perception
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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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absolute threshold
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the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time (one drop of perfume spread throughout 5 rooms)
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difference threshold (JND)
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the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time (difference in weights)
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cornea
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clear, curved membrane that covers pupil and iris
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pupil
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the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
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lens
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the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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retina
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the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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rods and cones
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cones: sensitive to color rods:detect black, white, and gray; sensitive to light
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optic nerve
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the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
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fovea
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the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster
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circadian rhythms
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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms every 24 hours
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Weber's law
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the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage
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mechanoreceptors
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receptors that responds to touch or pressure
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chemoreceptors
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receptor sensitive to stimulation by chemical substances
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photoreceptors
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receptor sensitive to light
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REM sleep
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a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
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sleep apnea
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a sleep disorder that occurs when you temporarily stop breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
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Stage 1,2,3,4
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1)light sleep. 2) presence of sleep spindles of EEG. 3) deep sleep begins. 4) deepest sleep stage
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hypnosis
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when a person tells the person what to do or say and their subconscious obeys
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narcolepsy
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uncontrollable and overpowering urge to fall asleep
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insomnia
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inability to sleep - either wake up early or can't fall asleep
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somnambulism
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sleep walking
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latent dream content
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underlying message of the dream
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manifest dream content
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storyline of dream
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physical dependence
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a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
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psychological dependence
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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
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depressants
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drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
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stimulants
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drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
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classical conditioning
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a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli that normally wouldn't have been associated
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Pavlov
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father of classical conditioning - did the study with the dogs who salivated when the bell rang
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conditioned stimulus
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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
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conditioned response
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the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
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unconditioned stimulus
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a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response
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unconditioned response
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natural response to an unconditioned stimulus
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extinction
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unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus - diminishes conditioned response; or when behavior is no longer enforced
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spontaneous recovery
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the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response
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generalization
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the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response
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discrimination
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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (don't tackle opponent on the street, only on field)
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operant conditioning
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creating desired behavior by reinforcement or punishment
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shaping (successive approximations)
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getting the desired behavior by rewarding approximations
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reinforcement
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encourages behavior
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punishment
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discourages behavior
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primary reinforcer
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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (food, sex)
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secondary reinforcer
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acquires its positive value through experiences (money)
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positive reinforcement
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stimulus is added to increase behavior - giving candy for getting an A
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negative reinforcement
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stimulus is taken away to increase behavior
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positive punishment
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stimulus is added to decrease behavior - spanking
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negative punishment
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stimulus is taken away to decrease behavior - time out
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fixed interval
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reinforcement after a fixed period of time
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fixed ratio
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reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses
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variable interval
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reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable amount of time
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variable ratio
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reinforcement occurs after a number of unpredictable responses
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latent learning
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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (underlying learning)
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observational learning (modeling)
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learning by observing others
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sensory memory
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the immediate, brief recording of sensory information into memory
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short-term memory
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holds a few items briefly before info is stored or forgotten
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encoding
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extracting meaning and processing info into memory
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storage
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the retention of encoded information
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retrieval
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getting info out of storage
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insight learning
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an organism develops a sudden insight or understanding of the problem's solution
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deep processing
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encoding that takes a lot of concentration
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shallow processing
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unconscious encoding
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long-term memory
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after short term memory, info is passed here and stored for a relatively permanent period of time
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tip of the tongue phenomenon
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knowing the information, but being unable to come up with it
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chunking
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dividing information into meaningful chunks
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serial position effect
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much more likely to remember the first and last things in a list
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primacy effect
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more likely to remember the first thing on a list
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recency effect
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more likely to remember the most important thing on a list?
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episodic memory
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autobiographical memory of a specific event
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semantic memory
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memory of facts - unrelated to personal experiences
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procedural memory
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same as implicit memory - retention independent of conscious recollection - nondeclarative memory
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explicit memory
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memory of facts and events that can be declared - also called declarative memory
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implicit memory
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retention independent of conscious recollection
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flashbulb memory
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vivid memory of an emotional event
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anterograde amnesia
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inability to recall information after a traumatic event
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retrograde amnesia
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inability to recall information that happened before a traumatic event
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recall
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bringing information to memory such as in a fill-in-the-blank exercise
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recognition
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recognizing information when you see it, such as in a multiple choice exercise
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retroactive interference
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the disruptive effect of new learning on old knowledge
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proactive interference
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the disruptive effect of old knowledge on new learning
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context dependent memory
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much more likely to recall info if you are in the same place you first learning it
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state-dependent memory
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more likely to recall info if you are in the same state of mind as when you encoded it
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Skinner
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major figure in operant conditioning - used reinforcement and punishment
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intrinsic motivation
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motivation that comes from inside, rather than from outside rewards
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extrinsic motivation
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motivated by external rewards
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morphemes
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the smallest unit that carries meaning (s is a morpheme because it makes it plural)
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telegraphic speech
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the expression of thoughts and emotions by making noises
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babbling
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putting letters together, but there's no meaning. occurs at 4 months
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expressive language
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responding, develops after receptive language
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receptive language
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understanding what is said to you; develops before expressive language
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phonemes
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the smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language (bat has 3 phonemes)
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pragmatics
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rules for communicating with other people
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syntax
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the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical
sentences in a language |
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semantics
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set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, works, and sentences
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What are the primary and secondary dimensions of diversity?
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Primary Dimensions - composed of those genetic characteristics over which we have no control, such as: age, ethnic, race, physical abilities and qualities.
Secondary Dimensions - include educational background, income, marital and parental status, religious beliefs and work experience. |
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validity
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the extent to which a test measures what it's supposed to
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reliability
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the extent to which a test yields consistent results
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Chomsky
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believed every person has a LAD (language acquisition device)
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LAD
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language acquisition device - every person has an inborn understanding of language
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validity
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the test measures what it's supposed to
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reliability
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test yields the same results
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convergent thinking
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coming up with the one correct answer
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divergent thinking
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bunch of different solutions for a problem
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emotional intelligence
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Salovey said this was a type of intelligence - involves being aware, managing, reading, and handling emotions
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normal distribution
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the curve that shows the mean intelligence scores - most are around 100 IQ
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predictive validity
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the success with which a test predicts what it's supposed to predict
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Gardner
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8 intelligences
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Sternberg
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triarchic theory: creative, analytical, and practical
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Binet
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created first paper-pencil intelligence test - wanted to identify children in public schools who would require intervention
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aptitude tests
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tests that measure potential
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achievement tests
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tests that measure what a person already knows
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Wechsler
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disliked "child" focus of Stanford-Binet; his is the most widely used tests of intelligence today; verbal and performance IQ
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Flynn effect
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intelligence scores are getting higher because of better nutrition, technology, smaller families, better education
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crystallized intelligence
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also called verbal intelligence; factual intelligence - names, dates, etc
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fluid intelligence
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also called performance int.; ability to problem solve quickly, reason
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standardization
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rules for giving and scoring a test - comparing scores to a standardized group
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savant syndrome
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mentally challenged but with an extraordinary ability
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down syndrome
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extra chromosome on the 21st pair that leads to mild cognitive impairment and some physical deformities
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cross-sectional research
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studying different groups of people at the same time
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longitudinal research
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studying the same group of people over a long period of time
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stereotype threat
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a self-confirming concern that you will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
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general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
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Selye's concept of the body's response to stress: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
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Type A
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Friedman and Rosenman's term for competetive, hard-driving, anger-prone, impatient people
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Type B
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Friedman and Rosenman's term for easy-going, relaxed people
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lymphocytes
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the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system
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norms
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normal distribution?
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problem-focused coping
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attempting to alleviate stress directly by solving the problem that is the stressor
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emotion focused coping
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attempting to alleviate stress indirectly by avoiding the stressor or dealing instead with the emotions that are caused by it
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social support
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a way to deal with stress: being surrounded by friends, marriage, pets
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cohort effect
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cross-sectional studies show decline in intelligence with age, but it's not necessarily true because culture and life experiences shape how different age groups do on tests
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psychoanalytic theory
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Freud's theory that thoughts and motivations outside of our awareness influence our behavior
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Sigmund Freud
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psychologist that followed the psychoanalytic theory
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unconscious
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subconscious
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displacement
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defense mechanism where you take anger out on a different outlet
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projection
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defense mechanism where you attribute your characteristics to others
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reaction formation
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defense mechanism where you say the opposite of what you're feeling because it's less anxiety-provoking
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regression
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defense mechanism where you retreat to a younger age mindset
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projective testing
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test designed to project one's inner thoughts
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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a test that uses a lifelike picture to project one's inner thoughts
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
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test that asks someone what they see in a splotch of ink in order to project his or her inner thoughts
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biomedical model
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model that takes into account the physical - not the mental emotional or cultural - processes of disease
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cognitive therapies
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therapy that attempts to change maladaptive thinking to positive and realistic
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Beck
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cognitive therapist - grandfatherly and supportive approach
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Ellis
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cognitive therapist - aggressive and in your face approach
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id
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little devil; seeks pleasure, instincts
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ego
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mediator between id and superego; reality, how can you please yourself without getting in trouble
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superego
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little angel, the conscience
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behavioral therapies
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classical conditioning (systematic desensitization and aversive conditioning) and operant (behavior modification, token economy)
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humanism
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relationship between client and therapist is key - unconditional positive regard, active listening; assumes humans are basically good
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Rogers
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father of Humanism
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systematic desensitization
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behavioral therapy technique; little steps to gradually overcome anxiety
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aversive conditioning
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behavior therapy technique; pair something unappealing with negative behavior
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psychoanalytic model
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model of therapy that helps people understand subconscious; belief is that childhood memories are causing problems in adulthood
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DSM-IV
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classifies mental disorders; it creates a common language, but also creates labels
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
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one of the most frequently used personality tests in mental health
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Bandura
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Bobo doll study; social cognitive theory
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hallucination
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involves perception (hearing/seeing something that's not there)
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delusion
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involves content of thought (grandeur, persecutory, referentia)
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social anxiety/phobis
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most common phobia - intense fear of being evaluated by others
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phobias
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intense, irrational, overwhelming fears
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generalized anxiety disorder
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excessive and constant worry
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panic attack
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hyperventilation, dizziness, etc.
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post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
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after a traumatic event, experiencing flashbacks, difficulty eating and sleeping, hypervigilance
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obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
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involves obsessions (uncontrollable thoughts) and compulsion (actions to try to get rid of obsessions)
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major depression
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lethargy, hopelessness for 2+ weeks
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bipolar disorder
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peaks (mania, superenergetic, reckless, creative) and valleys (depression)
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dysthymia
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lethargy and hopelessness for 2+ years
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paranoid schizophrenia
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type of schizophrenia where the person thinks that people are trying to sabatoge them
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catatonic schizophrenia
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a type of schizophrenia where the person is extremely stiff
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drug therapies
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antidepressants, anti-psychotic drugs, anti-anxiety
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psychosurgery
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rare therapy - remove or destroy brain parts/tissues
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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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therapy that causes a siezure in brain, usually causes memory loss
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fundamental attribution error
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used when we try to explain someone else's behavior - don't take situation into account, blame personality
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primacy effect
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remembering the first thing on a list
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self-monitoring
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??
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foot in the door technique
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get someone to say yes to a small request and gradually get them to say yes to a big request
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door in the face technique
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start with something huge you're not interested in and then make a smaller request
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low ball strategy
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persuasion technique - you decide on price, but when the price goes up you still want it(used by salesmen)
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central route of persuasion
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persuade with factual information
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peripheral route of persuasion
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trying to persuade by a roundabout way
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self-serving bias
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giving yourself the benefit of the doubt
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altruism
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selfless concern for the welfare of others
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great person theory of leadership
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great leaders are born not made????
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situation perspective of leadership
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effective leadership is task relevant????
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contingency model of leadership
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leader's personality and the situation is important??
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social identity theory
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when part of a group, our identity comes from that group??
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cognitive dissonance theory
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we change our attitudes to match our behaviors
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conformity
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changing behavior to match others
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social facilitation
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when people are watched, extra adrenaline helps in easy tasks, but harms in uncertain tasks
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deindividuation
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when someone does things in a group that they'd never do by themselves
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stereotype
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pre-conceived judgment because of a group
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prejudice
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unjustified pre-judgment, negative
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discrimination
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action towards someone because of their group
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egoism
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helping people with a selfish intent
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group polarization
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in a group, the opinions get stronger
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groupthink
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bad decisions are often made in groups because individuals are lost
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reciprocity norm
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if you helped me in the past, I'll help you now
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social responsibility norm
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we have to help people in a similar way that they helped us
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roles
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??
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bystander effect
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people are less likely to hlep when they are in a group
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Asch
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did the study on conformity - if everyone else says something wrong, 34% of the time so will we
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diffusion of responsibility
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social phenomenon which tends to occur in groups of people above a certain critical size when responsibility is not explicitly assigned
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social loafing
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in group work, only one person does everything
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obedience
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complying with the explicit demands of an individual in authority
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Stanley Milgram
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obedience studies - administering shocks
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ethnocentrism
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the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important
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Robber's Cave
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competition between 11-year old boys caused rivalry and prejudice; cooperative action was the only thing that reduced prejudice
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jigsaw classroom
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competing groups are put in one group so they have to work together
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