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270 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Gyrus |
"hill" in the folds of the brain
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Sulcus
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"Valley" in the folds of the brain
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Cerebral cortex
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The outermost layer of grey matter making up the superficial aspect of the cerebrum.
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Sagittal view
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view of side of brain sliced down the middle vertical.
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Coronal view
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Vertical slice down the brain dividing anterior and posterior
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Superior brain
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top part of the brain
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Posterior
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Back part of the brain
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Inferior
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Bottom part of the brain
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Anterior
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Front part of the brain
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Longitudinal fissure
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Divides both hemispheres
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Corpus callosum
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white matter fibers that joins both hemispheres together
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Cytoarchitectonics
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Division of the brain based on differences in structure of stained tissue
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Brodmann's guess
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functional brain map - possibly using cytoarchitectonics to label areas
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Broca's area
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Controls language expression - frontal lobe
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Wernicke's area
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Language comprehension- temporal lobe
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Frontal cortex
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The part of the brain where the executive functions of planning, organizing, and rational thinking are controlled
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Motor cortex
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An area at the posterior of the frontal cortex that controls voluntary movements
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Somatosensory cortex
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A brain area at the front of the parietal cortex that registers and processes body sensations
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Auditory cortex
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A an area in the temporal lobe of the brain that is responsible for hearing.
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Limbic system
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A group of neural structures at the base of the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with emotion, memory and motivation.
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Hippocampus
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located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
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Amygdala
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A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
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Occipital cortex
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located in the back of the brain, it is the main information-processing center for visual information
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Hypothalamus
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A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
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Thalamus
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A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex.
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pons
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relay messages from cortex to cerebellum - opposite direction than thalamus
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Brainstem functions
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swallowing, breathing, heartbeat, wakefulness centre and other involuntary functions - particullary the medulla oblongata
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Medulla
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Base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
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Cerebellum
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A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills; movement and balance - the old brain
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brainstem
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homeostasis - heart etc
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Glial cells
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Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
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Astrocytes - glial cells
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creates a blood barriers for neurons
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Microglia - glial cells
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Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria, act as the brains immune system
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Oligodendrocytes
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Form myelin sheath in CNS
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Hawthorne effect
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A change in a subject's behaviour caused simply by the awareness of being studied
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Subject bias
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Bias that results from the subject's expectations or the subject's changing of his or her behaviour.
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Experimenter bias
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Errors in a research study due to predisposed notions or beliefs of experimenter. Eliminate by using double blind design
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Rosenthal effect
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self-fulfilling prophecy; tendency to behave according to expectations of others--biased observers can give signals/cues to subjects
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Temporal resolution
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Resolution relating to time. More frames/second, better temporal resolution.
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Spatial resolution
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How close in physical proximity you can get to the target brain area
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Single-cell recording
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Uses tiny electrodes (wires) to measure the electrical activity of individual neurons.
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EEG/ERP
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good temporal resolution, cheap, poor spatial resolution; uses electroencephalography to record electrical activity of the brain during cognitive processing
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fMRI
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a form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain
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TMS
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Technique that applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull and that can either enhance or interrupt brain function.
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Unconditioned stimulus
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A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (FOOD)
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Unconditioned response
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An unlearned response. (SALIVATION)
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Conditioned stimulus
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A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response (BELL)
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Conditional response
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learned response to a stimulus that is previously neutral or meaningless (UNECCESARY SALIVATION)
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Acquisition
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In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
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Hebb Rule
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fire together, wire together
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split corpus callosum
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Hemispheres can't exchange data
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Corteen and Wood (1972)
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Responses to classical conditioning - participants showed psychological response to unattended (subconscious) conditioned words - ie they had fear response to words that were subconsciously given to them that were previously conditioned with classic conditioning
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Yerkes Dodson law
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A law stating that effective performance is more likely if the level of arousal is not too high, and not too low.
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Response - signal present
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Hit
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No response - signal present
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Miss
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Signal absent - response
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false alarm
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Signal absence - non response
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correct rejection
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fovea
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center of line of vision that has most dense pack of cones
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sensory register
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storage system that briefly holds information from the senses
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Iconic memory
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related to the visual system - .5 sec duration
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Echoic memory
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related to the auditory system - 2 sec duration
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Short term memory
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Intermediate storage systems that briefly holds information prior to consolidation. 30 sec duration.
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Encoding
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Transform sensory stimuli into a form that can be placed in memory
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Storage
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Effectively retaining information for later use
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Retrieval
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locating the item and using it
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Phonological loop
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'inner voice', this is used for sub vocal verbal rehearsal- holds and processes; Baddeley's Model, one of the slave systems of executive
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Chunking
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units of subjective organisation using long term memories to associate
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Long term memory
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Large capacity, long duration. Involves dynamic processes which can readily distort memories.
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Abstraction
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Cognitive process by which we store the meaning of a message and not the exact wording and grammatical structure
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Schema memory
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set of ideas about objects and events associated with familiar activity
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Semantic memory
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General knowledge
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Episodic memory
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memory for specific events
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Procedural memory
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without awareness of remembering
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Declarative memory
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conscious recollection
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Stereopsis
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The ability to perceive depth visually in three dimensions
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Timbre
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complexity of sound
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Loudness
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amplitude of sound
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Pitch
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frequency of sounds
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Thorndike's puzzle box
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cat in box. food out of box. cat could open door by tugging on appropriate lever. cat in unlocked door will accidentally push it open and therefore lean on door every time after. *trial and error
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Availability heuristic
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Judging the frequency or probability of events based on how available they are in memory.
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Representativeness heuristic
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Judging frequency or probability based on how well an event or person fits one's mental groups.
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Primacy heuristic (anchoring)
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Giving weight to the first pieces of information that are encountered.
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Framing effects
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The way a decision is put to us influences the decision outcome.
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Behavioural paradigm
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30s, scientific, only behavior can be studied; experimental method.
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Cognitive paradigm
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Thought processes (memory etc) occur between stimulus and response - Experimental method
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Psychodynamic paradigm
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Deep unconscious thoughts - Case studies.
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Biological paradigm
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Biological explanations account for psychological - Experimental and case study
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Humanistic paradigm
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The uniqueness of an individual - Case studies, rejects scientific approach: too ridgid.
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Naive realism
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1800s; natural/commonsense realism; the belief that we see reality as it really is – objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree
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Stroop effect
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Decrease naming color of ink used to produce words of color if they are different; demonstrates interference in reaction
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Introspection
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The systematic observation of one's own consciousness generally accompanied by a verbal report of one's observations.
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Naturalistic observation
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Objectively studying events as they naturally occur without intervention.
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Sampling bias
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A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
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Unconscious
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According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
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Depressants
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Psychoactive drugs that depress/diminish CNS activity. E.g Alcohol, tranquilizers.
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Opiates
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Psychoactive drugs that relieve pain and induce sleep. E.g morphine, opium.
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Stimulants
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A psychoactive drug that increases CNS functioning. E.g caffeine.
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Hallucinogens
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Drugs that distort perception. E.g LSD
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Meditation
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A family of mental exercises in which a conscious attempt is made to focus attention in a non analytical way.
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Extinction
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In classical conditioning, the removing of the conditioned response.
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Social learning theory
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learning by observing others; not just from reinforcement - Bandura
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Testing effect
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Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
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Neuroplasticity
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The capability for the brain to alter functional organisation as the result of experience. Exists at all levels of the brain,
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Neurogenesis
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Creating new neurons
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Synaptogenesis
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Formation of new synapses.
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Hemispheric specialisation
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Refers to specialised functions of the two hemispheres.
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Contralateral arrangement
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Right hemisphere controls left side of body and vise versa; e.g that seen in somatosensory cortex
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When the corpus callosum is cut
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Sensory inputs are still crossed, motor outputs are still crossed, hemisphere's can't exchange data.
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Presenting someone with a split brain an apple to the RIGHT eye.
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?The subject won't be able to recall what the object is. Left hand can draw the object, right hand can't.
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Presenting someone with a split brain an apple to the LEFT eye.
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?The subject will be able to recall what the object is. Right hand can draw the object, left hand can't.
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Attentional selectivity
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focusing on relevant cues, while ignoring or screening out others.
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Dichotic listening
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a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear.
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Moray and Treinsman (1961)
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Included information such as the research subject/participant's own name in the unattended ear and found that it was often heard, suggesting the unattended information may not be filtered out.
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Blindsight
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Is a condition where patient's primary visual cortex has been damaged and a large scotoma is present.
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Procedural memory
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Without awareness of remembering.
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Otoliths
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small crystals in FLUID FILLED VESTIBULAR SACS of the INNER EAR that, when shifted by gravity, stimulate nerve cells that inform the brain of the position of the head. gives us VESTIBULAR SENSE.
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Incubation
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Unconscious problem solving
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Newell and Simon's research
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The method of having to 'think aloud' or verbalise thoughts while solving a problem. The researcher records this verbal protocol and uses it as a record of the other person's 'problem space'.
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Emotion
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A short-lived response to environment involving physiology, subjective experience and behavioural/emotional response.
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Mood
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Not emotion. More long lasting state, no eliciting object, more diffuse.
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What emotion is NOT
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- Broader, all-encompassing term - Brief, behavioural response to emotion - Refers to general topics of emotion, feelings and moods altogether.
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Paul Ekman
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6 basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust; from cross-cultural studies, individuals could recognize facial expressions corresponding to those six.
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James Lange Theory
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Emotion comes from appraisal of autonomic and behavioural response.
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Cannon-bard theory
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Emotional reaction and physiological reaction occur together.
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Schacter-singer theory
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Emotional reaction occurs from cognitive appraisal of physiological arousal.
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Conjunction fallacy
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When people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event.
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Confirmation bias
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The tendency to seek out confirmatory information only.
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Illusory correlation
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The belief that two things go together when are in fact not related.
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Hindsight bias
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The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
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Dawe's 'cognitive conceit'
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The illusory/deluded belief that our perceptions, memories and judgements are accurate.
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'Shadowing'
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Repeating words from dichotic listening - to direct attention to the ear that attention is on
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Early selection theory
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Sounds register in the sensory register, but because of an information overload filter, information is then filtered out.
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Late selection theory
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If your name is called during dichotic listening, it will be detected as it is filtered through perceptual system and then into memory and then you will give a response to your name.
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Psychophysics
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Psychological response to physiological stimulus.
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Psychometric functions
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A graph that plots the percentage of detections of a stimulus for each stimulus intensity. Between 0.25 and .75 - the person is normally undecided about whether they saw the stimulus or not.
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Signal Detection Theory
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Used in WWII. A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise; compared with absolute threshold it is based on individual and circumstances
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Isosensitivty curves
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A visual representation of number of hits, and false alarms. As the curve bows up, it is an index that the subject is more sensitive to stimulus. As it bows down, the less sensitive.
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Rods
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Responsible for black, white and grey. More sensitive than cones.
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Cones
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Responsible for colour vision. Less sensitive than rods.
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Dark adaptation curve
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The plot of how visual sensitivity changes in the dark, beginning when the light are switched off.
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Lateral inhibition
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Helps us accentuate between light and dark borders.
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Mock bands (colour)
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Psychological bands of light/darker colour that appear due to lateral inhibition.
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Optic nerve
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All axons leave the eye from here thus there is no photoreceptors, hence a blind spot.
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Visual transduction
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the process by which light energy is converted to neural energy
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Cortical magnification factor
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Where the fovea focuses on an object, those features will appear larger in the occipital cortex.
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Binocular disparity
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Difference in images in the left and right eyes. Allows you to break camouflage.
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Cochlea
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A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
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Basiliar membrane
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A thin strip of tissue sensitive to vibrations in the cochlea. Contains hairs connected to neurons; vibrate when sound approaches.
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Interaural time differences
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When you can physically detect the speed of sound - as it arrives to one ear before another.
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Interaural intensity differences
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When your head creates an acoustic shadow, thus you hear noise louder in one ear as opposed to the other.
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Vestibular system
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Our sense of balance. Critically important for stabilising vision as well.
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Gustatory pathways
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Conscious perception of taste is produced as the information received from the taste buds is correlated w/ other sensory data. Taste most tied to smell.
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Papillia
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Cluster of around 50 taste receptors/buds.
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Mental set
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a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
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Classical conditioning
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A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus.
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Operant conditioning
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A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
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Glutamate
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Neurotransmitter: Excitation of neurons throughout CNS.
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GABA
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Neurotransmitter: Inhibition of neurons in the brain.
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Dopamine
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Neurotransmitter: Emotional arousal, pleasure and reward, voluntary movement, attention
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Serotonin
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Neurotransmitter: Sleep and emotional arousal, aggression, pain regulation, mood regulation.
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
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Neurotransmitter: Learning and memory
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Endorphins
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Neurotransmitter: Pain relief and elevation of mood.
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Pons
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involved with respiration, movement, waking sleep and dreaming.
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Tectum
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involved with orientating visual and auditory stimuli
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Tegmentum
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Is involved, among other things in movement and arousal.
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Basal Ganglia
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involved with movement, automatic responses, judgements that require little conscious attention.
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Difference threshold
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Lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred.
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Weber's law
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size of just-noticable-difference is proportional to size of initial stimulus; Law that states regardless of magnitude of two stimuli, the second must differ by a constant proportion from the first for it to be perceived as different.
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Stephen's power law
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Subjective intensity increases in a linear fashion as actual intensity grows exponentially.
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Sensory adaptation
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The tendency of sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continue to grow without change.
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Perceptual constancy
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Refers to the organisation of changing sensations into percepts that are relatively stable in size, shape and colour.
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Perceptual interpretation
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involved generating meaning from sensory experience.
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perception
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brains interpretation of sensory input
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sensation
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detection of physical energy converted to raw sensory signals sent to brain from sense organs
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absolute threshold
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the smallest detectable level of a stimulus - detectd 50% of the time
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cells of eye
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bipolar cells; rods and cones; ganglion cells;optic nerve, thalamus, v1
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jnd
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just noticable difference - smallest change we can detect in stimulus
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perceptual constance
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tendenency to maintain size, shape, color when an object moves closer - i.e it doesn't appear to change even if it is now 'bigger' when closer
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psychophysics
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study between physical events and the sensations experienced
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Bottom-up processing
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refers to processing that begins with raw sensory data that feeds up to the brain
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Top-down processing
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processing using existing knowledge (e.g stroop) to fill in gaps - experience, expectations and context shape new information; rapidly organise new info based on existing "mental set"
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Habituation
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Refers to the decreasing strength of a reflex response after repeated presentations of the stimulus.
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Stimulus generalisation
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Occurs when an organism learns to respond to stimuli that resemble to CS with a similar response.
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Stimulus discrimination
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occurs when an organism learns to respond to a restricted range of stimuli - ie only respond to the original stimulus, not others
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Spontaneous recovery
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is the short lived re-emergence of a previously extinguished CR.
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Explicit memory
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Conscious recollection expressed through recall or recognition.
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Implicit memory
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Is expressed in behaviour rather than consciously retrieved.
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Inductive reasoning
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means reasoning from specific observations to more general propositions that seem likely to be true.
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Deductive reasoning
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Means drawing conclusions from a set of assumptions that is true if the premises are true.
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Introspection
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'Looking within'
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naturalistic observation
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Observing behavior in real world settings, making no effort to manipulate or control the situation. (eg. observing bikies, but not part of the gang)
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Case History Research Method
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In depth study of individual (eg. if a subject is depressed, have they been depressed before and how many times?)
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Survey
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The collection of data by having people answer a series of questions of a large sample. Easily done but can also be distorted.
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Test
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Measure of performance relative to a pre-established norm (eg. mid semester exam, personality tests, depression tests, anxiety tests.)
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correlation coefficient
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A statistic that tells us the type and strength of the relationship between two variables. Always going to be between -1 and +1 If the line on the graph is rising than the correlation coefficient will be above 1, If it goes the other way than it will be less than 1.
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Correlation Fallacy
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The incorrect belief that correlation implies causation
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Blind Sight
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-Damage to the primary visual cortex
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Psychology
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The science that studies thought processes in the mind, behaviour and the application of this to practical problems.
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Cognitive Neuroscience
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Study of the brain linked with - sensory perception - memory - languages
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parsimonious
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which means... simple solution (eg. simple solution is usually the right one)
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Falsifiability
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Capable of being disproven
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Scientific Paradigm
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super-theory - describe - interpret observed phenomena
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Root Metaphor
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Look at new things and relate them to old things (eg. some people say that crocodile tastes like chicken)
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cognitive psychology
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the study of how people - think - learn - remember; root metaphore is a computer
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behavioral psychology
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cant study mind can only study behavior; animal testing
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Subject Bias
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Participants influence study through expectations
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experimenter bias
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experimenters influence participants
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Vestibular
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Sense of balance
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Somatosensory
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(from skin); Touch, vibration, pressure, temperature
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Acquisition
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Refers to the stages of learning when a response is established. It refers to the period of time when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response
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Extinction (in relation to classical conditioning)
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The elimination of a conditioned response (eg. child is no longer scared of a spider)
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Discriminative Stimulus
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the stimuli that must be discriminated between in operant conditioning eg. pigeon wants food, clicking right button gets food - light is the discriminative stimulus
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
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Stimulus + reward = behaviour more likely to occur in future Eg. Whistle + food = dog trick
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generalisation
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a decision or judgement about how widely the findings of a study can be applied particularly to other members of teh population from which the sample was drawn
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extinction burst
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temporary increase in behavior before it gets extincts (eg. taking a toy from a child > child screams initially)
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Operant Conditioning
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associate a behaviour with a consequence.
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Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement
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Good behaviour = adding reward
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Operant Conditioning Negative reinforcement
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Good behaviour = remove punishment - stops Eg. parent stops nagging child to clean room
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Operant Conditioning Positive Punishment
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Bad Behaviour = Adding something bad eg Don't do h/w = more chores
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Operant Conditioning Negative Punishment
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Bad Behaviour = Taking away reward (eg. phone)
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Partial Reinforcement
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Reinforcing a behaviour sometimes rather than always (eg. gambling)
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Types of reinforcement (4)
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Fixed ratio (FR) Fixed interval (FI) Variable ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)
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Schedules of reinforcement
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The schedule or pattern used to reinforce a behaviour
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Fixed Ratio
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after fixed number of responses Eg. dog gets bone after turning 3 times
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Fixed interval
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ever n minutes - reward if once in that time; Eg. 2 mins pass, if dog sat he gets bone
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Variable Ratio
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every nth response, but not always exactly n; Eg. Dog gets bone if it sits 10 times on average
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Variable Interval
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on average n minutes - Eg. 2 mins passes, if dog has sat he gets bone
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Shaping
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gradual training - progressively moving towards desired behavior, eg dog rolling over
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learning
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change in behavior or thought as a result of experience; not permenant, indirect & direct
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observation learning
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is learning from other people - like imitating but also learn to not do things (dont confuse with social learning research)
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evolutionary psychology
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applying natural selection to behavior - part of biological science
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behavioral psychology
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conditioning, reinforcement, and shaping are associated with this paradigm
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What is a form of accidental operant conditioning?
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Superstitious behaviour
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Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
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Operant = learning through rewards and punishments, voluntary; Classical = automatic, can't necessarily be help, liked dog salivating at bell
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Neuropsychology brain lesions assumption
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Changes in behaviour -> relates to -> part of brain used Eg. hand twitches when electrode is in a specific part of the brain would assume that this part of the brain controls hand movement
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Spatial neglect
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usually left sided spatial neglect due to damage to right parietal cortex
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single neuron recording
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records action potentials from individual neurons (mouse in a maze)
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Problems Single Neuron Recording
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1) Highly invasive 2) Electrodes have to go directly to the brain
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Mirror neurons are neurons that fire:
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to the movement of another subject Eg. monkey jumps when it sees someone jump
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EEG Electroencephalography
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Summed activity from multiple electrodes
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ERP
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measured response to result of direct and specific stimulus - Event related potentials Response to specific event/ stimulus
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MEG
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like eeg, good temporal measurment, more specific spatially than eeg but not as deep; Magneto encephalography
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TMS Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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repeated magnetic stimulation at skulls surface to stimulate/ disable target part of brain
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Motor Cortex Stimulation
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Eg. cause muscle twitch from specific part in brain
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Neuro disruption with TMS Assumption
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Can disrupt normal brain function - Disruption of that area disrupts task performance
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aphasia
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loss of language skills
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receptive aphasia
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occurs due to damage in Wernicke's area - unable to comprehend
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productive aphasia
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unable to produce speak, can still comprenhend Broca's area
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central sulcus
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divides parietal and frontal
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astrocytes
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create brain blood barrier
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preoccuptial notch
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between temporal and occupital and cerebellum
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lymbic system
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is the old mammilian brain
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reticular formation
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sleeping and awakefulness, sexual arousal
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medulla oblongata
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controls breathing and heart rate
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attention
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we can perceive phenoma that are not part of attention; i.e we can become conscious of them even when our attention is not on them
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McGurk Effect
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when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound
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Thorndike
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invented operant conditioning
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BF Skinner
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operant conditioning re kids - developed more sophisticated skinner box for testing animals
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John Watson
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founded behavioralism
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Stage1
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Just prior to falling asleep; often believe still awake: theta waves
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Stage2
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heart rate slows: sleep spindles
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Stage3/4
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very deep sleep, hard to wake: delta waves
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REM
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final stage, dream state
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object in left vision
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stimulates left retinas and left cortex
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intereference effect
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observed actions from mirror neurons are automatically mapped into motor cortex
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early selection theory
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perception of the stimulus is not required prior to having it selected for its relevance - ie the filter selects and retains that which can later be perceived; serial processing occurs; no pysiological affect of physical stimulus that is waiting to be attended to - only vaguley aware of the details, the semantic properties, until attention is placed on the physical stimulus - which means there is a bottleneck of processing
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late selection theory
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all information attended to equally, filter selects that information which is relevant; parallel processing occurs; this implies that there is a large 'buffer' for retaining all semantic properties of stimuli coming in - withdrawing attention means the stimulus is still processed, but without subject's awareness
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spatial neglect
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damage to parietal lobe means can ignore one side of everything
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discriminative stimulus
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a cue that indicates the kind of consequence that's likely to occur after a response; i.e a hint about punishment or reward (Sd)
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Mirror Neurons
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Neurons that fire both when performing an action and |
