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65 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Define Psychology |
The discipline concerned with behaviour and mental processesand how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, andexternal environment
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Define Scientific Method |
Objectively collect data through a set of steps
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Define Behavior |
The observable actions by which an organism adjusts to itsenvironment
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Define Psychobabble |
Supports popular often unsupported opinion-persists because peopleresist change or difference from their own opinion
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What are the goals of Psychology |
Describing what happens, why it happens (internal/externalforces), predicting what will happen, controlling what happens
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Define Critical thinking |
Observing unbiasedly and making a logical judgement- withoutemotion, Ask Questions, Be Willing to Wonder, Define Your Terms, Examine the Evidence,Analyze Assumptions and Biases
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Define Phrenology |
phrenologistsused to feel bumps on head to establish what kind of person you are
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Define Structuralism and think of the 4 names who evolved it. |
Emphasizes the “what” of mental behaviour-Basic elements ofsensation reveal the underlying structure of the mind. (Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Tichener, James Mark Baldwin, Max Wertheimer)
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Define Introspection |
would give all of us this information* what the thinking was-spendup to 20 minutes describing a 1.5 second experiment ex. Biting an orange, explaining in detail anysensation
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Define Functionalism and think of 2 men who evolved it |
Emphasizes the “why” of mental behaviour- What is the function of a given behaviour?Broadened the scope of psychology beyond the study ofobservable sensations (William James, John Dewey)
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What is modern Psychology |
Psychologistsexamine both the structure and the function of behaviour-Examine generalprinciples of behaviour as well as unique aspects of individuals-How weapproach the study of behaviour depends on our psychological perspective-Sevenperspectives:Psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic, cognitive, biological,evolutionary, and sociocultural
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What are the 7 psychological perspectives |
Psychodynamic Perspective,Behaviourist Perspective, Humanistic Perspective, Cognitive Perspective,Biological Perspective, Evolutionary Perspective, Sociocultural Perspective
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Define Psychodynamic Perspective |
Sigmund Freud-Behaviourexplained by inherited instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolveconflicts-Emphasizes unconsciousprocesses and conflicts
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Define Behaviorist Perspective |
John Watson, and B.F. Skinner-Behaviour explained by antecedent conditions, behaviouralresponses, and consequences-Focus onobjective, observable behaviour
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Define Humanistic Perspective
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Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow -Emphasizes individual’s inherent capacity for making rationalchoices and developing to their full potential -Focus on self-actualization and a holistic approach
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Define Cognitive Perspective |
Humanthought and knowledge in attending, thinking, remembering, and understanding isimportant -Behaviour is more thanstimulus and response
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Define Biological Perspective |
Behaviourexplained in terms of underlying physical structures and biochemical processes -Focus on the functioning of thegenes, nervous system, and endocrine system
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Define Evolutionary Perspective |
CharlesDarwin -Emphasizes both behaviouraland mental adaptiveness Studies allanimals -Focus on natural selectionand the long process of evolution
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Define Sociocultural Perspective |
Cross-culturaldifferences in causes/consequences of behaviour -Some theories may not apply to all cultures -Group comparisons of multicultural nations such as Canada
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Two broadareas of research
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Basic Psychology- “pure” research conducted to seek knowledge for its own sakeApplied Psychology-Finds practical uses for the knowledgegained from research
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Experimental Psycologists |
Researchlearning, motivation, emotion, sensation and perception, physiology andcognition
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Educational Psycologist |
Searchfor ways to improve educational systemsspan
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Developmental psychologists
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Study how people grow and change over time
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Industrial/Organizationalpsychologistsagment
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Study behaviour in the workplace (decision-making, employeemorale, work motivation, etc.)
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Psychometricpsychologists
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Design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes,interests and personality
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Counselling psychologists
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Helpwith everyday problems
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School Psychologists |
Workwith parents, students & teachers to enhance performance
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Clinical Psycologists |
Diagnose, treat, & study mental and emotional problems
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Schooling |
Most Clinical Psychologists have a PhD, EdD, or a PsyD(doctorate in psychology)-4 or 5 years graduate work in psychology-1 year ofinternship
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Psychotherapists
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Anyone who does any kind of psychotherapy
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Psychoanalysts |
Individualswho have trained in and practice psychoanalysis
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Psychiatrist |
Medicaldoctors who diagnose and treat mental disorders -only ones who can writeprescriptions
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Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) formed in what year
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1939 |
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American Psychological Association
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Psychology’s largest professional organization -53 divisions of psychology -Includes major areas (e.g.developmental, physiological) -Manyspecific research or professional interests
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Key characteristics of the ideal scientist
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Precision, Scepticism, Reliance on empirical evidence, Willingness to make “riskypredictions”, Openness]
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Operational Definition |
Define terms in hypotheses by specifying the operations for observing & measuring the process or phenomenon -how are the variables practically defined -e.g., anxiety defined as anticipation of receiving severe shock -permits assessment of validity
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Skepticism |
Treating claims with caution |
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Empirical Evidence |
What scientists rely on do determine if a hypothesis is true |
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Define Falsifiability
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Ascientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to disconfirmthe theory -Predicts not only what will happen but also what will not happen -Confirmation bias -Tendency to seek and accept evidence that supports our theories & ignore evidence that contradicts beliefs
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Define Openness |
Scientist’swillingness to explain the source of their ideas, how they tested them, andwhat the results were -Enoughclarity so replication possible -Peerreview process ensures scientific standards and provides system of checks &balances
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Descriptive Studies |
Goal to describe and predict behaviour but does not allowcausal explanations Essential for all studies is obtaining a representativesample
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Define Case Study |
Adetailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated -Basedon careful observation or formal testing -May be used to formulate broaderresearch hypotheses -Most commonly used by clinicians -Occasionally byresearchers in preliminary stages of inquiry -Some serious drawbacks - more indepth detail than cold studies etc. -Observer may have bias’ -Person of study may have non vivid memories-May not represent larger group -Case studies usually sources, not tests ofhypothesist��^iE�u
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Observational Study
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Method where researchers systematically observe & recordbehaviour without interference -Naturalistic observation -Observations in normalsocial environment ex. Bar -Laboratory observation -Observations in a morecontrolled lab setting ex. Lab -Drawbacks:The presence of researchers andspecial equipment may cause people to behave differently -Doesn’t allowconclusions about causerO^u
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Psychological Tests
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Procedures usedto measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes,interests, abilities, and values -Psychological tests can be -objective–measuring beliefs, feelings, or behaviours of which anindividual is aware; - projective—designed to tap unconscious feelings ormotive or projective -Characteristics of a good test include: -Standardization,reliability, validity
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Standardization |
Atest is standardized when uniform procedures for giving & scoring testexist -Proper scoring refers to norms or established standards of performance -Norms obtained by mass testing onintended populations to determinedifferent score ranges
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Reliability |
the consistency of scores derived from a test from onetime and place to the next or across scorers -Test-retest reliability
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Validity |
theability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure -Face validity-Content validity
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Surveys |
Are questionnaires & interviews that ask people aboutexperiences, attitudes, or opinions -Allow for extensive datacollection but many problems: -Obtaining representative sample (volunteer bias)-Truthfulness of responses -Type and phrasing of questions
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Correlation |
Study is a type of descriptive study that looks for arelationship between two phenomenaCorrelations: Measure of how strongly two quantifiablecharacteristics of behaviour (variables) are related to one another
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Positive Correlation |
Anassociation between increases in one variable and increases in another as X increases, Y increases
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Negative Correlation |
An association between increases in one variable anddecreases in anotherasX increases, Y decreases
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Experiment |
A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researchermanipulates one variable to discover its effect on another An experiment includes: Variables of interest, control conditions, random assignment, and consideration ofexperimenter effects
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IndependentVariable
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Variable the experimenter manipulates |
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Dependent variable |
Variablethat experimenter predicts will beaffected by manipulations of the independent variable
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Experimental Group |
Participantsin an experiment who are exposed to the manipulation of the independentvariableiable
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Control Group |
Participantsin an experiment who are not exposed to the manipulation of the independentvariable -May involve a placebo or “fake“treatment -Forms a control conditionfor comparison
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Experimental effects |
Unintendedchanges in participants behaviour due to cues inadvertently given byexperimenter -Prevent biases through single- or double-blind studies
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Advantages |
Experimentsallow conclusions about cause & effect-Help to detect real effects and strong empirical evidence
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Descriptive Stats |
Statisticalprocedures that organize and summarize research data (e.g., graphs &charts) Use arithmetic mean & standard deviation
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Inferential Stats |
Statistical procedures that allow researchers to drawinferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are -Mostcommon are significance tests -Indicate how likely a result occurred by chance-When likelihood is low, result is said to have statistical significance
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Interpretation |
maydepend on type of study: Cross-sectional studies: participants of different agescompared at a given time -Longitudinal studies: participants periodicallyreassessed over a period of time |
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Judging Importance |
Statisticaltechniques may be used to determine if results are really important -Effectsize is a measure of how much variability among scores is accounted for by theindependent variable -Meta-analysis combines data from many studies; how muchvariance in scores across all studies is accounted for by a particular variable`
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Eight major ethicalprinciples
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Respect for human dignity
Respect for free & informed consent Respect for vulnerable persons Respect for privacy & confidentiality Respect for justice & inclusiveness Balancing harms and benefits Minimizing harm Maximizing benefit |
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Ethics for Humans |
Must provide informed consent -Freedom to withdraw at any time -Minimize discomfort-Keep data confidential -If deception is necessary, must provide debriefing about true nature of study
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Ethics for Animals |
Animals used in psychological research for many reasons: Toconduct basic research; discover practical applications; study issues thatcannot be studied experimentally with humans; clarify theoretical questions;improve human welfare -Must abide by ethical codes for humane treatment ofanimals
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