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96 Cards in this Set
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What are the three parts to emotion? |
Physiological responses [Hr/respiration/perspiration]; Overt behaviours [facial expression/tone of voice/posture]; Conscious feelings [sadness/happiness] --- all made in response to a situation |
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What are the three parts to a fear response? What are the six universal emotions instilled from birth? |
Physiological, motor, and conscious reactions
Anger, sadness, disgust, fear, surprise, hapiness |
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The fight/flight response [arousal] are bodily responses that prep the body to face a threat. Name some things the body increases in doing, and decreases in doing |
Increases: blood pressure/HR; respiration; glucose level; pain suppression; blood flow to large muscles [arms/legs] Decreases: digestion; immune system function; sexual arousal; touch sensitivity; peripheral vision; growth |
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What controls body changes during the flight/fight response? When the brain senses a challenge/threat, what does the ANS do? What do stress hormones do? 3 major types? Stress is defined as having what two parts? |
Autonomic nervous system [ANS] Sends signal to adrenal glands which release stress hormones Turn the fight/flight system on or off - epinephrine (adrenaline)/glucocorticoids/cortisol Body arousal & release of stress hormones |
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When does the James-Lange theory of emotion say that conscious feelings of emotion occur? |
When the mind senses the physiological responses associated w/fear or some other kind of arousal |
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What are somatic theories of emotion premise based on? For ex.? |
Premise that physiological response to stimuli come first, and those determine/induce emotions --> Making an angry/happy face w/out being angry, will make someone angry/happy |
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Cannon's theory was a counterargument to somatic theories. He said many emotion-provoking stimuli give the same biological responses: fight/anger, flight/fear, and sexual excitement all increase HR/perspiration/hormone release.
This lead to Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, saying? |
Two independent simultaneously evoke emotions and arousal, and neither cause the other |
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What did Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotion propose? |
A combination of cognitive appraisal and perception of biological changes together determine our experience of emotion |
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What is piloerection? What two components of a fear response does this mean an animal is exhibiting? Joy and taste pleasure/displeasure are two other emotions measured by scientists. How is joy measured? What must we remember? |
A fear response in mammals where body hairs stand on end to look bigger/more threatening Physiological and behavioural components of a fear response Joy is measured by recording laughter-like vocalizations; must remember that we don't know if they're experiencing the emotion of joy, just that their physiological and behavioural responses are similar to those exhibited by happy animals |
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Give an example of conditioned emotional responses in a rat study What are two characteristics of conditioned emotional responses? |
US = shock gives URs of freezing/increase BP/HR CS = tone/light CR = conditioned emotional responses Can be learned fast and lasts for a long time/is hard to extinguish/easy to bring back after extinction |
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Learned helplesness is where exposure to an uncontrollable punisher teaches an expectation that responses are ineffectual, which in turn reduces the motivation to attempt new avoidance responses. How did Seligman and colleagues show this with the dog experiment? |
Put a dog in avoidance chamber where they they'd run over the wall into the safe chamber if they heard a tone which preceded a shock. Then paired another dog with tone and shock before being put in the avoidance chamber. Dog wouldn't do anything, even with coercion, to get out of the chamber if it heard the tone. Would just lay there and get shocked |
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What is one reason we have strong memories for episodes of intense emotion (fear/anger/happiness/surprise/etc)? Strong emotions can also affect the probability that an episodic memory is _________ in the first place. What emotions are best? What is mood congruency of memory? |
Because we rehearse them frequently, reviewing them mentally and talking about them w/others Encoded Excitement, humour, and especially sexual interest Easier to retrieve memories that match our current mood/emotional state -- sad people remember sad things, happy people remember happy things |
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What are flashbulb memories?
Are they accurate? Thus we can say? |
Memories made under extreme emotions that seem very vivid/long lasting They're as accurate as regular episodic memories (mostly accurate), but just very vivid and confident in them Emotion enhances memory for KEY events, but not for background details |
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What are two reasons why we can conclude that emotion is a function of the brain as a whole rather than arising from special circuits dedicated to individual emotions? |
Each emotion activates many different brain regions No single brain region is activated by all the different emotions |
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What are the three parts to the amygdala? |
Lateral nucleus - main entry point for sensory info into the amygdala from the thalamus Central nucleus - receives info from other amygdala nuclei and projects of the amygdala to the ANS, driving expression of physiological responses (arousal/release stress hormones), and to motor centers for behavioural responses (freezing/startle) Basolateral nucleus - gets info from lateral nucleus and projects to the cerebral cortex/basal ganglia/hippocampus to give a pathway for the amygdala to modulate memory storage and retrieval in those structures |
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What is the Amygdala? Where is it? What things does it do? |
Collection of brain nuclei Anterior tip of the hippocampus Learning/expressing emotional responses; mediating emotional modulation of memory formation |
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In a diagram, shoe how the amygdala receives sensory input from two separate pathways |
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Stimulating the amygdala produces dramatic emotional displays in animals like cats/rabbits. According to the two-factor theory of emotion, why doesn't this happen in people? |
Our conscious emotional feelings depend on biological responses and how we interpret the situation. We interpret the lab as safe, so a full panic response isn't warranted, whereas it would be in a real life situation |
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Using the example of SCR (skin conductance response) explain how the amygdala is important for learning and expressing conditioned emotional responses |
Lesions to the central nucleus of the amygdala interfered with the ability to learn and display new emotional responses. SCR is mediated by outputs from the central amygdala to the ANS that cause skin conductance to change. Patients with bilateral damage to the amygdala could not link the CS to SCR |
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Some researchers believe that the conditioned emotional response is learned and stored in the _________ nucleus, with the _________ nucleus behaving more like a simple way station that signals other brain stations to turn on the fear responses Thus? |
Lateral; central Animals w/lesions of the central nucleus can learn about a fear-evoking CS; but can't express this learning by freezing or activating the ANS |
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What are two characteristics of each the direct and indirect path to the amygdala? What's the purpose of the direct path? What's the purpose of the indirect path? |
Faster.slower Less detail, just the outlines of stimulus info/more detail, finer stimulus info React quickly, activate fight/flight Be more accurate, and terminate fear response if stimulus isn't dangerous |
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When surviving a brush with danger, how does learning from it take place in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala?
The amygdala has also shown to be involved in fear conditioning from the technique of optogenetics, what is this? What has this been able to demonstrate? |
Neural connections change as a result of experiencing a neutral CS (almond scent) paired with a fear-evoking US (shock). Neurons that fire together wire together makes the synapse between them strengthened, causing more activity in the lateral amygdala Make neurons sensitive to light, then use light stimulation to turn those neurons on/off at will Just light stimulation can be paired like a tone CS would be; so a 'real' stimulus like a tone isn't needed, just as long as the lateral amygdala is active when the US arrives, conditioning occurs |
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How does amygdala arousal relate to memory encoding? |
Encoding into episodic memory is better when the amygdala is aroused. Therefore someone w/amygdala damage might not remember events as vividly/store them as semantic memory |
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READ PAGES 422/423 |
read |
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What happens to patient's encoding who have hippocampal damage? What happens to patient's encoding who have amygdala damage? |
Reacts to conditioning, but can't report the details of the conditioning experiment (can't form new episodic, but can learn classical conditioning) Can report the details of the conditioning experiment, but don't experience the conditioning (amygdala damage spares hippocampal-dependent context learning, but to disrupt the learning and expression of an emotional response) |
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Damage to the prefrontal cortex can cause what two things to occur?
Resulting in? How does the prefrontal cortex interact with the amygdala? |
Fewer and less facial expressions Cannot recognize negative facial expressions Social withdrawal/loss of normal emotional display or heightened emotionality, inappropriate social behaviour, and mood swings The prefrontal cortex controls emotional reactions and modulates how much the amygdala outputs produce emotional responses in different contexts |
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A phobia is an excessive and irrational fear of an object/place/situation. What are the two types of phobias? |
Specific phobias - certain objects/social situations; normal things but extreme (afraid of spiders, but can't go outside)
Agoraphobia - general fear of leaving home/familiar 'safe' spaces; usually due to fear of having a panic attack in public |
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What are potential reasons phobias occur? How can phobias be treated? How does the amygdala relate to phobias? |
Traumatic experiences via classical conditioning Social transmission - seeing it on TV or seeing other people panic Systematic desensitization - patient learns to stay relaxed while showing fear-evoking stimulus until the stimulus doesn't give a reaction Heightened activity when phobic to something |
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PTSD can develop after exposure to horrific events like combat/rape/natural disasters. What are symptoms of PTSD? |
Re-experiencing the event (via intrusive recollections/flashbacks/nightmares) Avoidance of reminders of the trauma Emotional numbing Heightened anxiety |
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How does PTSD occur? What are the four possible reasons why PTSD occurs in some people and not others? How does this differentiate PTSD from phobias? |
Dramatic event = US CS = associated sights/sounds/smells CR = conditioned fear response Genetics, epigenetics, amygdala/hippocampus/PFC dysfunction, extinction/re-consolidation dysfunction Phobias = specific stimulus triggers fear PTSD = triggered by stimuli reminiscent of original trauma |
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Why can PTSD memories not be forgotten? How is extinction therapy for PTSD performed? What are two reasons why PTSD is unique among mental illnesses? |
There are lots of stimuli that trigger recall, and patients can't use the prefrontal cortex (important in direct forgetting) to stop the traumatic memories Expose patient to cues that trigger anxiety, but in the absence of danger Its preventable & has both genetic and epigenetic roots |
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What is an important brain area in PTSD? Why? How could they tell the causality? What is another important area? |
Structural MRi shows people with PTSD have smaller hippocampal volumes than people who didn't develop PTSD; hippocampus is important for extinguishing fear responses, so smaller hippocampus = less able to extinguish fear; looked at twins not in the war and saw they also had small hippocampal volumes Amygdala - increased response to negative emotional stimuli |
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When is STM called working memory? Working memory is composed of what three parts? What is cognitive control? |
When content is held/manipulated for a goal Two independent storage areas & central executive Manipulating & applying working memory for planning/task switching/attention/stimulus selection, & inhibition of inappropriate reflexive behaviours |
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What are three types of memory? |
Sensory memory - info rapidly decays STM - info maintained if rehearsed/consciously attended to LTM - retained for long periods w/out rehearsal/conscious attention |
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What are four characteristics of STM? What are transient memories? What are the two types? |
Effortless, dependent on attention, limited in capacity, labile Short lasting memories Sensory memory, short term memory |
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What is sensory memory? Sperlin was able to get doubled recall by linking tones to the rows of letters to be memorized. What did he attribute this result to? |
Brief/transient sensations People have a visual memory that persists for a short time (under 1sec) but includes ALL the items seen |
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What are the four differences between STM and LTM?
STM is limited by the number of things trying to be remembered. What else is an STM limitation? |
Active contents of consciousness vs not currently in consciousness Access is rapid vs access is slower Capacity is limited (~5-9) vs capacity is unlimited Forgotten quickly vs forgotten more slowly Limited to what you can pay attention to |
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Miller argued STM isn't limited to an absolute amount of information (or digits) but instead? Therefore what is key? |
Limited to the number of links/concepts to LTM that could be held active Therefore recoding of information is key to to optimizing the amount of info maintained in STM |
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What's the goal of working memory (working memory is a type of STM)? |
Just to remember it for a short period in order to achieve a goal |
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What are the three components in Baddeley's working memory model?
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Two independent STM buffers: visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop Central executive |
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What does the visuospatial sketchpad do? What does the phonological loop do? What's a key feature of Baddeley's theory? What are four ways the central executive monitors/manipulates the two working memory buffers (visuospatial and phonological loop) |
Hold visual/spatial images for manipulation Maintains auditory memories via internal speech rehearsal Visuospatial & phonological info are stored separately in working memory Adds/deletes items in the buffers Select which items guide behaviour Retrieve info from LTM Transfer info from visuospacial sketchpad and phonological loop to LTM |
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Braddeley's model highlights what two important distinctions? How were material specific buffers proven to be in STM? |
Distinguishes two general processes of working memory: manipulation (dependent on central exec.) and maintenance (dependent on rehearsal of info by the two memory buffers) Identifies the memory buffers as being material specific Verbal tasks interfered w/verbal STM but not visual STM |
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What are three characteristics in the phonological loop? |
Limited capacity - speech impairment reduces capacity of phonological loop Limited duration [without rehearsal ~2 seconds], word length effect - inverse relationship between world length and ability to remember Disrupted by competing verbal task, but not by an overlapping visual task |
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Just like the phonological loop has a 2-second time limit, the visuospacial sketchpad also has a limited capacity. What is unique about the visuospacial sketchpad's two capacities |
The two capacities are independent from one another: subjects can maintain info in the visuospatial sketchpad while simultaneously doing a secondary task using the other modality, like such as retaining an auditory list of words in the phonological loop |
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The delayed nonmatch-to-sample DNMS task is another test of visual memory, how does it work? How does this experiment allow for testing on either working memory or LTM? |
Monkey moves an object to find a reward under it. During delay period, the monkey's view is blocked. Then introduce a new object and old object. Monkey learns to always choose the new object to get reward Monkeys must hold the memory in their visuospatial memory buffer until presented with the next set. Short delays = test working memory Longer delays = long-term memory. |
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In the Baddeley model, the phonological loop, visuospacial sketchpad and central executive are seen as physical spaces. This is in contrast to the 'state' approach which says? Why are place models known as multi-store, and state models as unitary-store? |
The state approach says the phonological loop, visuospacial sketchpad can be reinterpreted as active states of phonological and visuospatial memories instead of physically distinct places or componenets of memory Multi-store = imply 2(+) places for memories to be stored Unitary-stored = imply one place for memory, although the memories can be in diff states |
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Place models see STM being limited by the rate info is rehearsed/forgotten/transferred. This is in contrast to state memory which sees STM limited by? Why have state-based models of working memory been gaining more attention lately? |
The bandwidth of attention that can be focused on activated areas of LTM They better explain new brain-imaging data on brain substrates of working memory |
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The central executive manipulates working memory in what four ways? |
1 - Controlled updating of STM buffers 2 - Goal-setting and planning 3 - Task switching 4 - Stimulus attention and response inhibition |
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In what three ways does the central executive use cognitive control to update STM buffers? The N-back test is done to study the controlled updating of working memory. In a list of numbers/whatever, the person must remember a number that is two numbers before the target number in a list of numbers. Performing this tasks requires active maintenance of what two things? |
1 - Receiving and evaluating sensory info 2 - Moving items into and retrieving them from LTM 3 - Deciding which items are needed for which tasks Must remember the target number and rules for the task The last two numbers read must always be remembered in case the next number is the target number |
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How does the human self-ordered memory task on studying behavioural and neural bases of working memory, work? |
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Goal setting and planning requires what three things from the central executive? |
1 - What subgoals have been accomplished 2 - What subgoals remain 3 - What the next subgoal is to be addressed Where after each move, some will be updated and changed while others stay the same |
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The Winsconsisn Card Sorting Test taps into working memory and executive control for what two reasons? |
Requires learning a rule and keeping it in mind while they sort, but also learning to change the rule and keep track of the new one without confusing the old |
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Norman and Shallice state that there are two types of processes that occur in situations like an American crossing the road in Britain. What are these two types of processes? What are each mediated by? The second type is a function of the _________ ___________ |
Automatic processes - situational cues like approaching a street. In an Englishman this elicits a reflexive look to the right and don't interfere w/concurrent activities like talking to friend Controlled/willed processes - supervisory attentional system --> modifies behaviour when automatic responses are inappropriate, inhibits automatic routines and changes prioritization of cues for attention Central executive |
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What test looks at how well a person's control processes can direct attention to stimuli and inhibit inappropriate automatic response? What two things must be done to complete the task rapidly? |
Stroop task Inhibit automatic impulse to read the words [automatic reflexive response] Instead keep a context-specific goal in working memory to remind you of the task at hand (attend to the colour alone) [task-specific aspect of stimulus] |
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The PFC [prefrontal cortex] is the furthest anterior part of the frontal lobe cortex, and is essential for working memory and executive functioning [considered what makes us intelligent/human]. What are the two main things the PFC does? Human's PFC is disproportionately larger than most other mammals, but chimps and orangutans have similar proportions, what does this suggest? |
Weighs consequences of future actions and plans/organizes actions accordingly For these tasks, needs to integrate info fromlong-term memory, the outside world & thebody Suggests special human cognitive abilities attributed to large frontal lobes also can reflect characteristics other than size, like complex interconnections/specialized subregions in the frontal cortex of humans |
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What is the most common behaviour characteristic/outcome of frontal-lobe damage? This is due to a lack of a _________-_________ system This is called ______________ syndrome |
Loss of ability to plan & organize
Cognitive-control system Dysexecutive syndrome - disrupted ability to think & plan |
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In addition to cognitive-control, frontal lobe damage can also impair working memory. What tasks will someone with impaired working memory do poorly in? What test is most commonly used to assess frontal-lobe functioning? Why do people w/damage to frontal lobes have issues with it? |
N-back test - updating working memory Digit-span tests - STM span Tower of Hanoi test - neuropsychological test assessing planning & maintaining/linking subgoals to achieve final goal Task-switching tests Wisconsin Card Sort Test Preserveration - Fail to learn a new rule, and instead persist in using an old rule despite repeated feedback showing its incorrect |
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What are the three main parts to the PFC [prefrontal cortex]? What are the two parts in the lateral prefrontal cortex? |
![Orbital prefrontal cortex
Medial prefrontal cortex
Lateral prefrontal cortex - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [DLPFC] & ventrolateral prefrontal cortex [VLPFC]](https://images.cram.com/images/upload-flashcards/25/48/50/24254850_m.png)
Orbital prefrontal cortex Medial prefrontal cortex Lateral prefrontal cortex - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [DLPFC] & ventrolateral prefrontal cortex [VLPFC] |
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What evidence is there that the DLPFC supports maintenance of items in working memory? |
Activity in the DLPFC during blank memory intervals (delays w/no external stimulation) |
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Goldman-Rakic trained monkeys to fixate at a central spot on a display. The monkeys kept their fixation on the spot while a cue was shown at 1 of 8 spots around the edge of the display. After the cue was removed, the monkeys were trained to wait during a delay period of several seconds, then at a certain signal, responded by moving their gaze to the cue’s former location. Moving the gaze to the correct location resulted in a reward. What was found in regards to the DLPFC? |
Some neurons only fired in the DLPFC while the animal remembered the stimulus location; other neurons only during presentation of cue itself; others only during delay; others only during response |
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What was found about the delay neurons during Goldman-Rakic's monkey test? Looking at bottom center had the strongest firing, possibly due to memory of where the cue had appeared or in anticipation for the later movement of the eye gaze to that location. To distinguish between these alternatives, the researchers trained the monkeys to move their eyes to the location opposite to the cue. In that study, about 80% of the delay cells seemed to encode where the target had been (regardless of the eye-gaze response), while the other 20% seemed to encode the intended movement. What did these results suggest? Why would monkeys occasionally move their eyes to the wrong position? |
These neurons were individually tuned to different directional movements (one neuron for movement to left, one to right, etc.) Suggest that neurons of the DLPFC that fire during the delay are encoding a combination of sensory & movement-response information Because the wrong neurons were firing int he DLPFC |
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Earl Miller argued that the key “cognitive” contribution of the prefrontal cortex to working memory is the ability of the prefrontal cortex to sustain activity despite distractions. How has this been shown in people? |
Persistent activity in the DLPFC during the retention interval of delayed-response tasks. Event-related fmRi studies of humans have recorded persistent activity in the dlPFC during retention intervals of delayed-response tasks. During the delay period in a task in which subjects were required to withhold responding to a cue, as in the studies of Goldman-Rakic and others described above. |
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Why is the persistent activity in the DLPFC important for executive-control processes? |
Top down signals from the DLPFC always plays the same function of 'control', but when this control is active in many different brain regions the effects on behaviour can be very different |
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What does the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex do? The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex interacts with the posterior cortical regions to help what two things? What does the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex do? |
Encoding and retrieval of information Helps the visuospatial sketchpad & phonological rehearsal loop Supports higher-order cognitive control functions (monitoring/manipulating stored info like in Baddeley's central executive) |
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To test the mapping of processes to brain regions, Petrides developed a self-ordered delay-response task where he found DlPFC-lesioned monkeys were able to maintain object memories over varying delays (as opposed to manipulating those memories) and showed no problems solving basic delayed-recognition tasks. He also found that increasing the number of items to be monitored in these tasks exacerbated the impairments due to DLPFClesions, whereas simply extending the delay time did not. What did this mean? |
Basic mnemonic judgments about recently seen objects, which require only maintenance of information during a delay, are not affected by DlPFC lesions. These maintenance functions are instead controlled by loops between the frontal lobes and more posterior regions of the brain (ex. posterior cortical speech and language areas [for verbal information] & posterior cortical visual areas [for object and location information] |
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Studies of patients with selective brain damage to different parts of their frontal lobe verbal working memory occur on the ______ side of the brain, while spatial working memory and monitoring processes are more dependent on the ______ side of the brain. |
Left; right |
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What can you tell from this diagram? Lesionsto toposterior frontal lobes cause what? To middle frontal lobes? |
Abstract plans (ex. sandwich, move all disks to right peg) = anterior frontal lobes. Concrete/specific plans (ex. as spreading peanut butter on the sandwich) = posterior frontal lobes. Impair domain-specific motor learning tasks but not in domain-general monitoring Impair general monitoring tasks but not domain-specific tasks |
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What does the the idea that the desire to make a sandwich drives you to butter the bread, not vice versa, tell us? Why do younger children need more specific, concrete goals and plans? |
That flow of control goes from anterior to posterior in the frontal lobe
The posterior [specific] region develops and matures before the anterior [abstract] area does |
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What areas are being activated in this FMRI diagram when participants are asked to recall the source of a word to trials where they were only asked if the word were familiar READ FROM PAGES 381 TO 387. |
Left prefrontal, lateral and medial parietal, regions were more active during source recollection than during mere familiarity judgments |
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The two most common disorders involving dysfunctional prefrontal circuits are schizophrenia and ADHD
Shizophrenics have disturbances in working memory and executive control, implying what area is dysfunctional? Schizophrenics have normal phonological, visuospatial memory, & do fine on memory tasks ability w/only minimal delays or few items to keep track of. However, schizophrenics are especially impaired at visuospatial working-memory tasks when? |
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Impaired on visuospatial working-memory tasks when they involve the manipulation or updating of information in working memory |
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What was found in schizophrenic patients when trying to solve the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test? What correlation was found? |
DLPFC did not increase blood flow like it would in normal people Correlation between amount of blood flow in DLPFC & performance = more blood flow in DLPFC --> better performance on Wisconsin Card sorting Test. |
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Ventral and posterior prefrontal-cortex activity is normal in schizophrenics. What does this imply? Normal people use the DLPFC in executive working-memory tasks, schizophrenia patients are often unable to do so. So what do they do? |
Rehearsal mechanisms associated w/ventral and posterior areas are less affected by schizophrenia They use more VLPFC involvement to compensate for their dysfunctional DLPFC response |
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Why does impaired DLPFC functioning cause deficits in working memory and executive control found in schizophrenia? What does dopamine do? What gene affects dopamine metabolism in the frontal lobes, making people more succeptible to schizophrenia? |
Deficiencies in cortical dopamine processing Neuromodulates neuron-neuron communication COMT gene |
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What is habituation defined as? What happens in an acoustic startle reflex? What is the orienting response? |
A decrease in strength/occurrence of a behaviour after repeated exposure to the stimulus causing the behaviour A defensive response [like jumping/freezing] to a startling stimulus [like loud noise] An organism's natural reaction to a novel stimulus |
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What is meant by stimuli being stimulus specific? Ex? What is meant by stimulus generalization? |
Habituation to one event doesn’t cause habituation to every other stimulus in the same sensory modality Baby habituates to a donut shaped object, but will have strong orienting response to cross-shaped object The more similar the object, the less fixation |
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What is dishabituation? What does dishabituation prove? |
Renewal of a response that was previously habituated, that happens after shown a novel stimulus Proves that the person/organism is not simply getting tired as it will react again after being shown the novel stimulus |
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What three main factors affect the rate and duration of habituation? |
How startling the stimulus is Number of times the stimulus is experienced Length of time between repeated exposures |
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How does the level of arousal [how startling a stimulus is] affect the rate and duration of habituation?
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Less arousing events = more rapid habituation [Tshirt tag = habituates fast, spider on your neck does not] |
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How does the number of times the stimulus is experienced affect the rate and duration of habituation? What are massed exposures? What are spaced exposures? |
More rapid repetition of a stimulus leads to more rapid habituation Massed = exposures repeated close together in time Spaced = exposures spread out over time |
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What is short-term habituation? What is long-term habituation? |
Short-term habituation = habituation that goes away in seconds/minutes Long-term habituation = habituation that lasts longer |
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What happens in spontaneous recovery? Mass exposures to a stimulus lead to ignoring a stimulus faster than animals given spaced exposures, but? Spaced exposures take longer for responding to habituate, but? |
A previously habituated response reappears [or increases in strength] after a short period of no stimulus presentation But if they're retested after a long break, mass exposure-learned groups are more likely to show spontaneous recovery But once habituation occurs, it lasts for longer |
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What happens in sensitization? How does it relate to habituation? How long does sensitization last for? A startle response can habituate to one loud tone that is repeated over and over; but if a different loud noise is presented, the startle response reappears in full force—habituation doesn’t transfer to the new sound. By contrast, exposure to a sensitizing stimulus (such as an electric shock) can? |
An arousing stimulus [ex. electric shock] leads to stronger response in other stimuli Its pretty much the opposite [repeated experiences lead to weaker response] 10-15 minutes Can amplify the startle response to any stimulus that comes later [tone/loud noise/butterfly/anything else] |
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How is sensitization measured in humans? Prepulse inhibition is like habituation in that some stimuli are tuned out based on experience, leading to reduced responses. Prepulse inhibition is also like sensitization in what two ways? These properties of prepulse inhibition have led to researchers describing it as being a case of? |
Skin conductance response [SCR] - change in skin's electrical conductivity associated w/anxiety/fear/surprise Initial weak stimulus can affect response to a wide range of other stimuli [even in other modalities] Single presentation of the weak stimulus can produce the effect Dishabituation - past experiences reduce responses to wide range of stimuli |
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What happens in priming? How is it studied in people? |
Prior exposure to a stimulus improves ability to recognize the stimulus later Word-stem completion task - shown a word-stem [ex MOT___] and fill in the first thing that comes to mind. Priming can make them create certain responses even if they don't remember consciously seeing those words |
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Perceptual learning is learning where...? When perceptual learning occurs without explicit training, it can be referred to as _______ ____________ ___________ In what two ways is perceptual learning similar to priming? In what one way does perceptual learning differ from priming? |
Repeated experiences with a set of stimuli makes those stimuli easier to distinguish Mere exposure learning - learning via mere exposure to stimuli without any explicit prompting and w/out any outward responding Repeatedly experienced stimuli are processed more effectively after learning Can occur even if the learner isn't aware that their sensitivities to perceptual differences are increasing Perceptual learning = increased ability to tell similar stimuli apart; priming = changes in detection/recognition of stimuli caused by recent experiences w/similar stimuli |
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What is spatial learning? |
Getting information from your surroundings |
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What's the benefit in using Aplysia sea hares in studying habiutation, sensitization, and other types of learning? |
Can watch the nervous system in action and see what's specifically occurring |
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This type of habituation is called synaptic depression, what is synaptic depression? Habituation in sea hares is homosynaptic, what does this mean? |
Reduction of synaptic transmission It only involves those synapses that were activated during the habituated event [a light touch to the tail or upper mantle still elicits the defensive gill withdrawal, even though a touch to the siphon is ignored. The responsiveness of the motor neuron m is not changed. In this case, habituation in the short term affects only how much neurotransmitter neuron s releases. |
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Long term habituation in sea hares where they're repeatedly exposed to the same stimulus over several days causes the # of connections between the affected sensory neurons and motor neurons to decrease. Specifically, the # of presynaptic terminals in the sensory neurons of animals that have been repeatedly exposed to the same stimulus is reduced. Synaptic transmission in Aplysia can thus be depressed not only by decreases in neurotransmitter release but also by the elimination of synapses. What does this suggest? |
This suggests that repeated experiences lead to weakening of connections and their elimination |
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The key to sensitization is that it is heterosynaptic, what does this mean? Because of this..? |
It involves changes across several synapses, including synapses not activated by the sensitizing event Because of this, a tail shock increases responses to any future stimulus |
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Neural circuit that make dishabituation overlap w/those that make sensitization - but aren't identical Desensitization, which is similar to habituation, is more similar to sensitization at the neural level because? Desensitization is not sensitization in reverse [it doesn't involve decreases in the release of serotonin], instead..? |
It is heterosynaptic Instead, desensitization is the active inhibition of synaptic transmission by an independent set of inhibitory neurons |
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The cerebral cortex processes information about stimuli, including distinguishing the features of perceived stimuli. Sensory cortices [S1, A1, M1, V1] help make these distinctions The range of stimuli that cause a particular cortical neuron to fire is called the neuron’s ___________ ________ Where the neuron fires the most is referred to it being _______ to X More neurons tuned to a certain type/source/strength of stimulus (or any other feature of a stimulus) = ? |
Receptive field Tuned Better ability to make fine distinctions related to that stimulus |
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Neurons with similar receptive fields are often found clustered together in sensory cortices. When these clusters are organized in predictable ways, the pattern of cortical organization is described as a _____________ ______ |
Topographic map - cortical neurons that are physically close together are tuned to similar stimulus features. In topographic maps, neighboring cortical neurons have overlapping receptive fields Ex adjacent neurons respond to gradually increasing or decreasing sound frequencies [neurons tuned to 0.9 khz will be surrounded by neurons tuned to 0.8, 0.9, or 1.0 khz] |
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What is cortical plasticity?
If what you perceive depends on how neurons in your sensory cortices are tuned and if the tuning of your sensory cortices changes over time, then what does this suggest about your perception? |
The ability for cortical receptive fields & cortical spatial organization to change as a result of experience Perception may change over time |
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Regular, sighted opossums have distinct cortical regions tuned exclusively to visual/auditory/somatosensory inputs. Simultaneously, receptive fields in other regions of the cortex were multimodal [neurons in those areas responded to inputs from more than one sensory modality].
What 3 things were seen in opossums that had grown up blind? |
1 - Cortical areas exclusively tuned to visual stimuli in sighted opossums had shrunk, and within those areas some neurons now responded to auditory/somatosensory stimuli or both. 2 - Auditory and somatosensory areas had gotten bigger 3 - Had a new cortical region w/unique anatomical and physiological characteristics |
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How has neuroimaging showed that neurons within the sensory cortices of adults can be retuned within a day? Thus..? |
After an area is stimulated repeatedly, the cortex region being activated starts to be enlarged Thus repeated stimulation led to both perceptual learning and cortical reorganization [increase in the size of the region of somatosensory cortex selectively activated during stimulation is associated with an increase in the number of cortical neurons tuned to touches of the fingertip] |
