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67 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Three Memory Processes
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Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
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Levels of processing
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Shallow (Structural)
Intermediate (Simple) Deep (Complex) |
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Other Effects on Encoding
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Elaboration
Visual Imagery Self-Referent Encoding |
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3 Memory Systems
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Short-term
Long-term Sensory |
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Sensory Memory
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Visual: Lasts only for fraction of a second
Auditory: Lasts about 2 seconds |
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STM
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Capacity of 5-9 bits of info
-Can increase bits of info by -CHUNKING -Lasts less than 30 seconds -Can be kept here via rehearsal |
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LTM
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-Unlimited capacity/somewhat permanent
-Info into LTM by rehearsal -2 subsystems, declarative and nondeclarative memory |
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Implicit vs. Explicit
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-Non intentional remembering
-Intentional remembering |
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Declarative memory
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-Explicit, LTM subsystem
-Stores info that can be remembered verbally or stored as images -EPISODIC: events in your life -SEMANTIC: general knowledge |
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Non-declarative memory
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-Implicit, LTM subsystem
-Motor skills, habits, simple reflexes |
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Flashbulb Memories
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-Having detailed vivid memories of important events, but aren't always accurate or more accurate than unimportant events
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Memory System Process
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Sensory Memory (transfer)>STM (transfer)><(retrieval)LTM
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Measurements of Memory
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Recall
Recognition Relearning Retention |
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Causes of Forgetting
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-Encoding failure
-Decay theory -Interference PROactive: can't retain new RETROactive: can't retain old -Consolidation failure (STM x> LTM) -Motivated forgetting, physiological (repression, amnesia) |
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Misinformation effect
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-Caused by SOURCE MONITORING or REALITY MONITORING
-Must be careful with use of eyewitness testimony |
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Remembering
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-Reconstruction: piece together highlights--> an account
-Schema: framework of knowledge in LTM -Semantic networks: link schemes/concepts |
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Retrieval of Memories
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-Cues (recognition)
-Reinstating context |
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Serial Position Effects
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-Primacy effects: remembering earlier info of a sequence because can be placed in LTM
-Recency effect: remembering info @ end of sequence because still in STM |
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Improving Memory
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-Organization
-Overlearning -Massed practice vs. Spaced Practice |
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Mnemonics
Method of Loci Peg Words |
-Conscious strategies used to improve memory
-Placing items indifferent locations, construct walk -Associate items with bizarre images |
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Levels-of-processing theory
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Deeper levels of encoding allow for longer lasting memory
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Conceptual hierarchy
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Multiple-level classification system based on common properties among items
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Amnesia types
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Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories before injury
Anterograde amnesia: loss of memories for events after the injury |
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Habituation
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Learning not to respond to an unimportant event that occurs repeatedly
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Classical conditioning
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-Pavlov's dogs
-UCS, UCR, CS, CR -Pair UCS with CS to cause UCR -Ex. Meat powder(UCS) causes drooling(UCR), pair meat powder with tone(CS) to cause drooling |
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Processes in Classical Conditioning (6)
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Acquisition
Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Generalization/Discrimination Higher Order Conditioning |
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Biological significance of classical conditioning
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-Allows learner to make appropriate response faster and more effectively
-Protective factor -Previously unimportant stimuli acquire some important properties |
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Phobias
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-Probably an example of conditional emotional response
-Unreasonable fear of specific objects or situations, learned through classical conditioning |
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Operant conditioning
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-Rewarding behaviours to increase frequency of the behaviour
-Skinner box |
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The Law of Effect
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Thorndike's idea that the consequences of a behaviour determining whether it's likely to be repeated
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Three-Term Contingency
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Environment instrumental in shaping behaviour
Discriminative stimuli--(sets the occasion for)-->A response--(which produces)-->Favourable consequence--(strengthens connection between stimulus and response)-->Discriminative stimulus |
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Reinforcement
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-+ or -
-Escape learning: response decreasing an aversive stimulus -Avoidance learning: response preventing an averisve stimulus |
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Situational compliance
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Only behave well when being monitored, revert to old behaviour when not being monitored
(Opposite: committed compliance) |
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Positive vs. Negative reinforcement
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-Being given smth desirable
-Taking away something undesirable |
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Positive punishment vs. Response cost/Negative punishment
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-Inflicting pain/something aversive
-Taking away something good |
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Negative side-effects of punishment
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-Risk of injury
-Inducing fear and hostility -Learning which response NOT to make -Doesn't teach desirable responses |
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Intermittent reinforcement
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Different reinforcement schedules
-VR (most successful) -VI -FR -FI |
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Instinctive Drift
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Instinctive rights override conditioning
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Conditioned Taste Aversion
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Learn to not eat something that caused food poisoning previously
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Cognitive Processes in Conditioning
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We aren't passive recipients of conditioning, we weigh the consequences
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Observation and Imitation
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-Attn, retention, imitation (can be deferred) and motivation
-Classical conditioning and operant behaviours can be acquired through observation |
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Language
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-Complicated system of rules allowing us to communicate verbally
-Genetic and environmental process |
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Nature-Nurture debate
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-BF Skinner, environment
-Chomsky, genetically prewired |
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Nativist View
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-Advanced by Chomsky about the biological basis for language acquisition
-Consists of rules only acquirable by humans -Language acquisition device: brain's specialized neural circuits for leaning grammar, Broca's area |
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Interactionist theory
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Nature + nurture contribute to acquisition of language
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Phonology
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Studies the sounds of speech
-Phonetics: study of different speech sounds |
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Prelinguistid Period
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Infant sound production developmental course:
1. Nonspeech sounds (burps, cries, whimpers) 2. Cooing, one syllable vowel sounds @ 2 months 3. Babbling: strong of identical sounds, consistent across cultures--> drifts towards language exposed to 4. Language comprehension, then production |
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Semantics
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-The study how children acquire words and meanings
-Children express first words at about 1 year old -18 months: vocab= about 50 words, can understand about 100 |
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Naming explosion
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Beginning to acquire words at a high rate, around 2 years old
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Issues in Early Language
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-OVEREXTENSION: using existing labels for things whose names they don't know
-UNDEREXTENSION: failing to use a label for an object for which the label is appropriate |
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Grammar
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-The study of the structural properties of language:
SYNTAX: word order INFLECTION: word endings modifying meaning INTONATION: can change meaning of verbal communication |
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Telegraphic speech
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Leaving out unnecessary function words
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Environmental supports/Parental feedback
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EXPANSIONS: repeating speech in which errors are corrected and elaboration
RECASTS: restating using a different structure CLARIFICATIONS: signal that the listening didn't understand |
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Pragmatics
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-The social use of language
-SOCIAL REFERENTIAL COMMUNICATION: speaker sends a message comprehended by the listening, audience-appropriate language -ex. turn taking |
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Morphological knowledge and metalinguistic awareness
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Develop during childhood and adolescence
-Understanding the meaning of morphemes making up words (ex. hop-less-ness, Genie didn't get this) -Reflective commentaries on language and its properties (ex. metaphors) |
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Bilingualism
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-Smaller vocabs in one language, combined vocabs average
-Higher scores on cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attn, metalinguistic awareness -Slower processing speed -2nd language easier to acquire early in life -Greater acculturation>>better acquisition |
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3 types of problem solving
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Of INDUCING STRUCTURE: series completion and analogy
Of ARRANGEMENT: task with restraints (string problem and anagrams) Of TRANSFORMATION: transform info. to achieve goal (water jar, hobbits and orcs) |
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Barriers to effective problem solving
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-Irrelevant info
-Functional fixedness -Mental set -Unnecessary constraints |
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Problem Solving Approaches
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-ALOGRITHM: trial-and-error, guarunteed solution
-HEURISTICS: shortcuts, solution not guaranteed, subgoals, working bkwds, analogies, representation |
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Field dependence vs. independence
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-Relying on external frames of reference, look at whole taking enviro @ face value
-Relying on internal frames of reference (Western cultures), don't believe everything we see, look at non-obvious explanations |
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Holistic vs. analytic cognitive styles
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-Look at whole pictures/context/relationships
-Look at the issue, focusing on the problem |
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Simon
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-Theory of bounded rationality
-We mane decisions only based on few facts, not whole, causing irrationality |
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Additive and elimination strategies for making choices
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-Rate on scare positives and negatives, make devision on highest rated decision
-Eliminate options based on unfavourable elements |
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Risky decision making
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Strategies with uncertainty
-Expected value: proba. of benefit -Subjective utility: outcome worth -Subjective proba: what you think the proba is |
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Judging probas heuristics
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-Availability heuristic (what comes to mind)
-Representativeness heuristic (prototype) -Ignoring base rates (ignore statisitcs) -Conjunction fallacy -Alternative outcomes effect (making judgement based on previously observed outcomes) |
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Pitfalls
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-Gambler's fallacy: belief of increasing odds of an event after it not happening for a while
-Law of small numbers: limited amount of info. -Overestimating improbable: plane vs. car crash -Confirmation bias and belief: wanting to confirm what we think regardless of reality -Overconfidence effect -Framing: making decisions based on language or context, what wording sounds best |
