Psy Theories Of Personality -- Ryckman

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"personality"

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"personality"
the pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person

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Apriori predictions

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Apriori predictions Predictions about the outcome of an investigation that
are made before the data are collected.

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Applied Value

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Criterion or standard for judging the scientific worth of a theory: an adequate theory is capable of providing creative solutions to problems that are of interest and concern to people. For example, a theory might specify the different kinds of parental discipline that lead to the development of physically and psychologically healthy or unhealthy children. If the theory has considerable data to support it, then parents could adopt the kinds of discipline that lead to healthy development (for example, praise for their children when they exhibit helpful behavior, encouragement
for cooperative behavior during play activities), and avoid or eliminate the kinds of discipline that lead to unhealthy development (for example, physical and verbal abuse, praise for aggressive behavior).
Such a theory therefore would have high applied value: it would help people to raise children who are psychologically
healthy.

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Case Study

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case study Research technique involving the intensive study of a single person over a long period of time in order to understand his or her unique behavior.

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comprehensiveness Criterion

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comprehensiveness Criterion for judging the worth of a scientific theory: theories are judged as more adequate and useful if they encompass and account for a wide range and variety of phenomena.

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conceptual definitions

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conceptual definitions The concepts in the hypotheses must be defined precisely so that accurate measures of the concepts can be devised. Vague concepts lead to faulty and ambiguous operational definitions and a poor testing of the hypotheses. An Introduction to the Discipline

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Control Group

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control group In an experiment, the group that does not receive the experimental treatment. A control group is designed to provide baseline data against which the effects of the experimental manipulation of the dependent variable can be accurately judged.

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correlation coefficient

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correlation coefficient A numerical index of the size and direction of an association between two variables.

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correlational method

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correlational method General procedure for establishing an association or relationship between events. Statistics involving correlations can
vary in complexity from simple correlation coefficients to complicated factor analyses.

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cortisol

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cortisol An adrenal-cortex hormone that is generated by any kind of physical or psychological stress. Higher cortisol levels are indicators of greater stress.

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debriefing

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debriefing Informing study participants of the true nature and purpose of a study after it is completed.

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deductive theories.

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deductive theories Theories in which specific hypotheses are derived from abstract propositions and then tested by the collection of data.

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dependent variables

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dependent variables Changes in behavior that occur as a result of the
manipulation of conditions by an experimenter.

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empirical evidence

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empirical evidence Observations of phenomena made by investigators.

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empirical validity

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empirical validity Criterion for judging the worth of a scientific theory: the theory's hypotheses are tested by the collection of data to determine whether or not they are accurate. Confirmation of the
hypotheses tends to lend support to the theory; disconfirmation of the hypotheses, if repeated, tends eventually to decrease confidence in the theory.

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experimental group

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experimental group The group of study participants who experience the
intentional alteration of factors in an experiment.

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experimental method

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experimental method Scientific method for studying cause-and-effect
relationships between variables. It involves the manipulation of
independent variables, and observation ofthe effects of the manipulation
on dependent variables.

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heuristic value

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heuristic value Criterion for judging the scientific worth of a theory: an
adequate theory should be challenging; it should stimulate new ideas and new research.

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hypotheses

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hypotheses Tentative theoretical statements about how events are related to one another, often stated as predictions about how the operation of one set of events will affect the operation of others.

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independent variables

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independent variables The variables actively manipulated by the experimenter
so that their effects on individual behavior can be observed.

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inductive theories

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inductive theories Generalizations or summary statements about phenomena,
derived from a set of facts.

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informed consent

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informed consent The practice of telling study participants about the
nature of their participation in a proposed experiment and then
obtaining their written agreement to participate.

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law of effect

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law of effect The principle that a behavior becomes more likely when it
is followed by a positive reinforcer or the removal of a negative stimulus, whereas it becomes less likely when it is followed by a punisher or the removal of a positive reinforcer.

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laws

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laws Systematic and highly reliable associations between variables.

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longitudinal studies

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longitudinal studies Studies in which data are collected on the same individuals
over time, so that investigators can determine the direction
and extent of changes in the individuals' behavior.

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multiple correlation

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multiple correlation Statistical technique by which it is possible to determine
the relationship between one variable and a combination of
two or more other variables simultaneously.

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operational definitions

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operational definitions Procedures or operations used to define particular
constructs. For example, intelligence could be operationally defined
in terms of a person's scores on a verbal reasoning test.

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parsimony

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parsimony Criterion for judging the scientific worth of a theory: an
adequate theory should be as parsimonious, or economical, as
possible, while still adequately accounting for the phenomena in
its domain.

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partial correlation

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partial correlation A correlational technique that allows an investigator
to assess the relationship between two events by eliminating, or
partialing out, the influence of other variables.

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personality

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personality The term used by personality psychologists to describe the
uniqueness of the individual. The description of personality
involves judgments regarding who the person truly is and how she
or he differs from other people. Particular biological tendencies and social and cultural learning experiences combine to determine the person's uniqueness.

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post hoc explanation

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post hoc explanation Explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence.
The explanation presumes that certain factors caused the
phenomenon, but there is no certain evidence that they actually did so.

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postulates

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postulates The fundamental or core assumptions of a theory. They are
taken as self-evidently true in order to provide a clear and focused
direction for theorizing and research. They specify which phenomena will be addressed by the theory and which won't be addressed. For example, one theory of aggression could postulate that aggression is learned behavior, whereas another could postulate that it is
genetically based. Reliance on the assumption that it is learned
would lead the theorist and investigators to focus their energies

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precision

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precision Criterion for judging the scientific worth of a theory: an adequate
theory should contain constructs and relational statements
that are clearly and explicitly stated and measured.

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propositions

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propositions General relational statements that may be true or false. They are not tested directly; instead, hypotheses are derived from them. The hypotheses-specific propositions containing constructs that are operationalized-can be confirmed or disconfirmed through empirical testing.

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psychological construct

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psychological construct A highly complex abstraction that encompasses
a variety of components or dimensions. For example, intelligence
is a construct that encompasses reasoning ability, spatial ability,
mechanical ability, mathematical ability, and so forth.

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relational statements

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relational statements Theoretical propositions or hypotheses that link or
relate constructs. For example, the constructs of frustration and
aggression might be linked as follows: Increases in frustration lead to increases in aggressive behavior.

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replication

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replication Duplication or repetition of an experiment or study to determine whether or not the original findings are reliable.

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self-affirmation theory

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self-affirmation theory A theory postulating that each of us strives to
maintain a view of ourselves as morally adequate, and that we
respond to any threat to our self-integrity by trying to restore or
reaffirm it.

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self-reports

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self-reports Written or verbal statements given by study participants on questionnaires or in interviews concerning their personality characteristics. Self-reports are sometimes limited, in that people may distort their responses to impress investigators. Participants also may be unwilling or unable to comment on some of their
personality characteristics. On the other hand, self-reports allow
investigators to gather large amounts of data efficiently by asking participants questions about themselves that deal with a wide variety of situations. Self-reports also can be useful in yielding data that provide support for investigators' theorizing.

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statistical significance

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statistical significance A numerical index of the probability that a particular
result occurred by chance.

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testability

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testability Criterion for judging the scientific worth of a theory: an adequate theory must contain hypotheses that can be defined clearly, measured precisely, and confirmed or disconfirmed in terms of observable events.

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theory

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theory A number of interrelated conceptual statements that are
created by investigators to account for a phenomenon or a set of phenomena.

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Organ Inferiority may include

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Organs the Disgesteive apparatus, respiratiory genitourniary apciculatyrp organs and nervous system

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psychopathology

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Disordered behaviors, such as neuroses or psychoses, that interfere with realistic and effective functioning or behaving