Psy 310 Chapter 1

Front 1

Psychology

Back 1

No single definition;

The study of the psyche, spirit, consciousness, behavior.

Front 2

Historiography

Back 2

study of the proper way to write history.

Front 3

Presentism

Back 3

attempt to understand the past in terms of the present knowledge and standards.

Front 4

Historicism

Back 4

study of the past without addressing the relationship between past and present.

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Zeitgeist (spirit of the times)

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approachemphasizes the influences of developments in other sciences, political climate,technological advancements, and economic conditions on the development ofpsychology

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Great-Person

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emphasizes the works of individuals.

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Historical Development

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•Illustrateshow individuals and/or events contributed to changes and development of ideasand concepts

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Eclectic Approach

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combinesthese three approaches and is the approach used in the book

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Why study the history of psychology

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•Perspective

•Deeperunderstanding

•Recognitionof fads and fashions in psychology

•Avoidingrepetition of mistakes

•Asource of valuable ideas

•Curiosity

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Perspective

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•Allowsfor a more full appreciation of modern psychology.

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Deeper Understanding

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–Allowsfor a greater awareness of where psychology’s subject matter came from and whyit is considered important

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Recognitionof fads and fashions in psychology

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–Theability to recognize that a current avenue of research or body of knowledge maybe affected by subjective and arbitrary factors of society

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•Avoidingrepetition of mistakes

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•Beingfamiliar with the history of psychology helps to avoid repeating the mistakes of previousresearchers and practitioners

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•Asource of valuable ideas

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–Individualscan become familiar with earlier ideas that may have remained dormant forvarious reasons

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•Curiosity

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–Tobecome familiar with the history of psychology for personal interest

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•empirical observation

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– direct observation of nature

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two major components of science

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empirical observation and theory

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Definitions of Science

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Combination of rationalism and empiricism

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Rationalism

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mentaloperations or principles (rules of logic) must be employed to attain trueknowledge.

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Empiricism

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thesource of all knowledge is sensory observation.

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Scientifictheory has two main functions

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–Organizeempirical observations.

–Providesguide for future observations.

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Confirmablepropositions

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–Theoriessuggest propositions that are tested experimentally and if they are confirmedthen the theory gains strength, otherwise the theory will be revised orabandoned.

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Law

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•consistentlyobserved relationship between two or more classes of empirical events which isamenable to public observation and verification.

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Two Classes of scientific laws

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1. Correlational laws

2. Causal Laws

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Correlational laws

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–howclasses of events vary together.

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Causal laws

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howevents are causally related

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Major goal of science

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Discover the cause of natural phenomena

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Assumption of determinism

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what is being studied can be understood in terms of causal laws.

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Traditional View

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–Empiricalobservations

–Theoryformulation, testing, and revision

–Predictionand control

–Searchfor lawful relationships

–Assumptionof determinism

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Karl Popper

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–Ascientific theory must be refutable – principle of falsifiability

–Theoriesmust make risky predictions – predictions that run a risk of being incorrect

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Postdiction

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–explainingphenomena after they have already occurred

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•ThomasKuhn

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–Correspondencetheory of truth

–Paradigmschange as observations cannot be explained by the current paradigm

–Researchersbecome emotionally involved with their paradigm and it becomes very difficultto give up.

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Correspondence theory of truth

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Thenotion that the goal, when evaluating scientific laws or theories, is todetermine whether or not they correspond to an external, mind-independentworld.

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anomalies

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•persistentobservations that a currently accepted paradigm cannot explain

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Scienceprogresses......

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–asscientists are forced to change their belief systems, which are very difficultto change.

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–Stagesof scientific development

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•Preparadigmaticstage

•Paradigmaticstage

•Revolutionarystage

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•Preparadigmaticstage

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–Manyrival schools of explanation with random fact gathering. Eventually one school succeeds and becomes aparadigm and science continues.

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•Paradigmaticstage

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Scienceoccurs until a new paradigm displaces the old one

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•Revolutionarystage

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–Anew paradigm displaces another one.

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Popper stated that scientific problem solving is a creative activity

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unlike thepuzzle solving that Kuhn describes it as.

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–Popper’s analysis stresses logic and creativity

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while Kuhn’s analysis of sciences stresses convention and subjective factors.

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Popperaccepted the correspondence theory of truth

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–whileKuhn rejected this theory and instead believed that scientists create the“reality” they explore.

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•Determinism

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–Allbehavior has causal explanations.–

Biologicaldeterminism

• –Environmentaldeterminism

•.–Socioculturaldeterminism •

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Biological determinism

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emphasizes importance of physiological conditions and/or genetic predispositions in explanation of behavior.

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Environmental determinism

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emphasizes importance of environmental stimuli as determinants of behavior

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Sociocultural determinism

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emphasizes cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs, and beliefs that govern human behavior

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Physicaldeterminism

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•genes,environmental stimuli, and cultural customs are used to explain human behavior

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Psychicaldeterminism

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mentalcauses, conscious or unconscious, of behavior

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Heisenberg’sprinciple applied to psychology

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•statesthat we can never learn at least some causes of behavior because in attemptingto observe them we change them.

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•Nondeterminism

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Someresearchers reject science as a way of studying humans

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•Determinismand responsibility

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–Freewill leads to personal responsibility for behavior.

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–Harddeterminism

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•Causesfunction in an automatic, mechanistic manner, thus the notion of personalresponsibility is meaningless.

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–Softdeterminism

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•Cognitiveprocesses intervene between experience and production of behavior. Human behavior is result of thoughtfuldeliberation of options available; thus, a person is responsible for actions.

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•Materialists

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–Matteris only reality, thus everything must be explained in terms of matter

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•Idealists

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–Attemptto explain everything in terms of consciousness

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•Monists

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Believein only one view: either materialist or idealist

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•Dualist

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–Believethat there are both physical events (materialism) and mental events (idealism).The question is, how are they related?

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Types of dualism

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–Interactionism

–Emergentism

–Epiphenomenalism

–Psychophysicalparallelism

–Double aspectism

–Occasionalism

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–Emergentism

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•Mental states emerge from brain states.

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–Epiphenomenalism –

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•Mental processes are byproducts of brain processes.

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Psychophysical parallelism

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•Environmental events cause both mental events and behavior simultaneously, which are independent of each other.

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–Interactionism

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•The mind and body interact.

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–Doubleaspectism

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•Humanscannot be divided into mind and body; they are a unity of experience. Mind and body are aspects of the same person.

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–Occasionalism

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•Thissuggests that when a desire occurs in the mind, God causes the body to act;when events happen to the body, God causes the corresponding mental experience.

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•Nativism

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–Emphasizes role of inheritance

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Empiricism (nurture)

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–Emphasizes role of experienc

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•Mechanism .

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–Behavior of all organisms can be explained as machines in terms of parts and laws

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•Vitalism –

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Living things contain a force that does not exist in inanimate objects.

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•Rationalism

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–Emphasizes logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes in explanations of behavior

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•Irrationalism

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–Emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior which cannot be pondered rationally

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•Ifdifference is quantitative(one of degree), •

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studying animals can contribute to understanding human behavior

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If difference is qualitative,

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studying animals can contribute nothing important to understanding human behavior

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•Epistemology

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–Study of the nature of knowledge

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•Radical empiricism

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All knowledge comes from sensory experience.

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Rationalism

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Agreesthat sensory information is important, but that the mind then activelytransforms the information in some way before knowledge is attained.

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•Nativists

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–Proposethat some ideas are a natural part of the mind (Examples: Plato and Descartes)

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Naïverealism

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•positsthat our subjective experience is exactly what is present in the physicalworld.

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Reification

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•Afallacy in which we tend to believe that because something has a name, it alsohas an independent existence

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•Universalism

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–The goal is to describe general laws and principles that govern the world and our perception of it. •Universal truths are to be discovered.

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•Relativism –

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Universal truths either do not exist, or if they do, they cannot be known.