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106 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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learning
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relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capacity, or attitude that is aquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation.
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classical conditioning
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a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another.
also referred to respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning. |
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stimulus
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any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds.
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unconditional response
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a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
(salivation to food, startle response, contraction of pupil, eyeblink response) |
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unconditioned stimulus
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a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning (food, loud noise, light in eye, puff of air in eye)
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conditioned stimulus
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a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response. (the musical tone)
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conditioned response
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the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. (salivation to the musical tone)
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higher order conditioning
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conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals.
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extinction
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in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
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spontaneous recovery
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the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following rest period.
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generalization
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in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
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taste aversions
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the intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or discomfort.
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law of effect
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one of Thorndike's laws of learning, which states that the consequence, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened.
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operant conditioning
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a type of learning in which the frequency of a voluntary behavior changes as the result of the consequences that the behavior produces.
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reinforcer
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anything that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows.
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shaping
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an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behavior(response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response, thereby gradually guiding the responses toward the ultimate goal.
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reinforcement
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an increase in the frequency of a behavior that occurs as the result of the consequences that the behavior produces.
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primary reinforcer
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one that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning. (food, water sleep, and termination of pain)
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secondary reinforcer
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acuired or learned through association with other reinforcers. (praise, good grades, awards, applause, attention, and signals of approval)
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continuous reinforcement
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reinforcement that is administered after every desired or correct response; the most effective method of conditioning a new response.
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partial reinforcement
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a pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all correct responses are reinforced.
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fixed ratio schedule
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a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses.
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variable ratio schedule
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a reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses, based on an average ratio. (slot machines)
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fixed interval schedule
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a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a following the first correct response, after a specific period of time has elapsed. (salary)
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variable interval schedule
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a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after the first correct response that follows a varying time of nonreinforcement, based on average time. (random drug testing)
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punishment
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the opposite of reinforcement... it is the decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind of consequence.
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positive punishment
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behavior decreases after the addition of a consequence, usually an unpleasant one.
rat stops pressing a lever (decreased behavior) when doing so causes a loud, annoying buzzing sound (added consequence) |
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negative punishment
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happens when a behavior decreases after the removal of a consequence.
rat stops pressing a lever (decreased behavior) when doing so causes a dish of food to disappear from its cage (removed consequence) |
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escape learning
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learning to perform a behavior because it prevents or terminates an aversive event. (paying bills to avoid late fees)
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avoidance learning
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learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias. (avoid riding in a car with someone who has been drinking)
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learned helplessness
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a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events.
(Overmeier & Seligman dog experiment) |
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latent learning
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learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so. (Tolman)
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cognitive map
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a mental picture of spatial arrangement such as a maze.
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observational learning
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learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation. Sometimes called modeling.
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encoding
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first memory process--the transformation of information into a form that can be stored in memory.
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storage
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second memory process--involves keeping or maintaining information in memory.
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consolidation
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a physiological change in the brain that allows encoded information to be stored in memory.
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retrieval
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third and final memory process-- occurs when information stored in memory is brought to mind.
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memory
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a cognitive process that includes encoding, storage, consolidation, and retrieval of information.
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sensory memory
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the memory system that holds information from the senses for a period of time ranging from only a fraction of a second to about 2 seconds.
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short-term memory
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the memory system that codes information according to sound and holds about seven (from 5-9) items for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal; also called working memory.
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displacement
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the event that occurs when STM is filled to capacity and each new, incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten.
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chunking
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a memory strategy that involves grouping or organizing bits of information into larger units, which are easier to remember.
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rehearsal
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the act of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory.
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working memory
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the memory subsystem that we use when we try to understand information, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone.
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maintenance rehearsal
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repeating information in short-term memory until it is no longer needed; may eventually lead to storage of information on longterm memory
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elaborative rehearsal
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a memory strategy that involves relating new information to something that is already known.
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longterm memory
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the memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories.
2 subsystems: declarative and nondeclarative memory |
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declarative memory
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the subsystem with long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life events that can be brought to mind verbally or in the form of images and then declared or stated
2 types of declarative memory: episodic and semantic |
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episodic memory
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the type of declarative memory that records events as they have been subjectively experienced. (a mental diary)
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semantic memory
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the type of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, or objective facts and informaton.
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nondeclarative memory
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the subsystem within long-term memory that stores motor skills, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses; also called implicit memory.
(eating with a fork, riding a bicycle, driving a car) |
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recall
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a memory task in which a person must produce required information by searching memory.
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recognition
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a memory task in which a person must simply identify material as familiar or as having been encountered before (multiple choice exams)
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relearning method
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retention is expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned relative to the time required to learn the material originally.
(relearning material for a final exam takes less time than it took to learn the material originally) |
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serial position effect
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the finding that, for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for items at the beginning and the end than for items in the middle of the sequence.
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primary effect
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the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence rather than the middle terms.
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recency effect
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the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle
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state dependent memory effect
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the tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological state as when the information was encoded.
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reconstruction
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an account of an event that has been pieced together from a few highlights, using information that may or may not be accurate.
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schemas
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frameworks of knowledge and assumptions we have about people, objects, and events.
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flashbulb memory
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an extremely vivid memory of the conditions surronding one's first hearing the news of a surprising, shocking, or highly emotional event.
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loftus
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eyewitness testimony is highly subject to error and should always be viewed with caution.
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improving eyewitness accuracy
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-have eyewitness first describe the suspect and search for photos matching that description.
-subjects in lineup must resemble the suspect in age, body build, and race -witnesses should see one person at a time in a lineup |
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infantile amnesia
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the inability of people to recall events from the first few years of life.
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anterograde amnesia
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the inability to form long-term memories of events occuring after a brain injury or brain surgery, although memories formed before the trauma are usually intact and short-term memory is unaffected.
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Ebbinghaus' research
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developed the curve of forgetting by mastering nonsense syllables. Discovered that most info is forgetton within the first 24 hours.
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encoding failure
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the information was never put into long-term memory in the first place.
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decay theory
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the oldest theory of forgetting, assumes that memories, if not used, fade with time and ultimately disappear entirely.
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interference
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a cause of forgetting that occurs because information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder the ability to remember it.
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proactive interference
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occurs when information or experiences already stored in long term memory hinder the ability to remember newer information.
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retroactive interference
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when new learning interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information.
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consolidation failure
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any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long term memory from forming.
(car accident, blow to the head) |
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retrograde amnesia
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memory loss for experiences that occured shortly before a loss of consiousness.
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motivated forgetting
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forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect oneself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant.
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repression
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unpleasant memories are literally removed from consciousness and the person is no longer aware that the unpleasant event ever occured.
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prospective forgetting
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people are most likely to forget to do things they view as unimportant, unpleasant, or burdensome. (forgetting a dentist appointment)
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retrieval failure
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not rembering something one is certain of knowing.
(tip of the tongue phenonmenon) |
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overlearning
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practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error.
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improving memory
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organization, overlearning, spaced practice, and recitation.
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heuristics
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rules of thumb that are derived from experience and used in decision making. (leaving early to avoid traffic)
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availability heuristic
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a rule stating that the probability of an event corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mind.
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representative heuristic
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a decision strategy based on how closely a new situation resembles a familiar one.
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recognition heuristic
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a strategy in which the decision making process terminates as soon as a factor that moves toward a decision has been recognized.
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analogy heuristic
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type of problem solving that involves comparing a problem to others you have encountered in the past.
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working backward
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problem solving approach that starts with a solution, a known condition, and works back through the problem.
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means-end analysis
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the current position is compared with a desired goal, and a series of steps are formulated and then taken to close the gap between the two.
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algorithm
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a problem solving strategy that always leads to a correct solution if it is applied appropriately.
(width x length) |
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functional fixedness
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the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems.
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mental set
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the tendency to use the same old method even though another approach might be better.
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aptitude tests
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a test designed to predict a person's achievement or performance at some future time. (SAT,ACT)
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acceleration
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program for the gifted that allows students to progress at a rate that is consistent with their ability. (skipping grades)
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enrichment
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program for the gifted that aims to broaden students' knowledge by giving them special courses in foreign language, music appreciation, etc.
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mental retardation
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subnormal intelligence reflected by an IQ below 70 and by adaptive functioning that is severely deficient for one's age.
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inclusion
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educating students with mental retardation in regular schools. (mainstreaming)
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nature-nurture debate
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the debate over whether intelligence is primarily the result of heredity (nature) or the environment (nurture)
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adoption study method
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an approach that involves studying children who were adopted very early in life.. adoptive children have IQ's more closely resembling those of their biological parents than adoptive parents.
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the Flynn effect
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the consistent improvement in IQ scores over time that accompanies an increase in the standard of living (IQ's have risen 3 points per decade)
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Jensen's views on IQ
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genetic influence on intelligence is so strong that the environment cannot make a significant difference.
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creativity
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the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems.
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divergent thinking
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the ability to produce multiple ideas, answers, or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution.
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convergent thinking
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the type of mental activity measured by IQ and achievement tests...solving logical problems for which there is a known correct answer.
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savant syndrome
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a condition that allows an individual whose level of general intelligence is very low to perform highly creative or difficult mental feats.
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cognition
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the mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information.
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reasoning
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a form of thinking in which valid conclusions are drawn from a set of facts.
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deductive reasoning
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reasoning from the general to the specific, or drawing particular conclusions from general principles.
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