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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is psychology?
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the explanation of the mind.
Greek: psyche and logos -it is the SCIENCE of behavior and mental process -why is it science? they follow the research process |
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2 types of behavior
mental processes |
can be overt or covert
conscious and unconscious |
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origin of psychology
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oriiginated from philosophy:
-locke and aristotle and also based in biology: -charles Darwin- studied survival of the species -Francis Galton (1800s) Heritability of traits |
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2 big ideas that came out of philosophy
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empiricism: we can gain knowledge from observation
rationalism: gain knowledge through being logical |
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who is the father of psychology
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Wilhelm Wundt
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what did Wilhem experiment
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-studied Introspection
~focus on conscious experience ~ did a simple study about hearing something and response time to say you heard it -he trained william james |
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major perspectives in psychology
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Psychodynamic: Psychoanylytic (freud) thought boys are really in love with their mothers
Behavioral: John Watson B. F. Skinner Focus on observable behavior Humans learn how to behave I yelled at my friend because I grew up in an environment where yelling was accepted Humanistic: Cognitive: Paradigm shift… Focus on mental processes (e.g., memory, thinking) Social-Cultural: Behavior varies across situations and cultures Biopsychosocial approach: Integrative Considers influence of nature and nurture (biology, learning, cultural influences) |
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what do psychologists do?
break up into 4 groups: |
-Basic Research:science based. Pure science aimed at increasing the scientific knowledge base.
Biological Psychologists Developmental Psychologists Cognitive Psychologists Personality Psychologists Social Psychologists -Applied Research: science to solve practical problems. Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. Industrial/Organizational Psychology Health Psychology Environmental Psychology Most of the “Basic Research” fields Clinical: studies, assess and treat people (diagnos). Administer and interpret personality tests Provide therapy Manage mental health programs. -psychiatric: medical. practiced by physicians who provide medical (for example drugs) treatments as well as psychological therapy. Psychiatric |
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Psychological Research
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Psychologists have found that studying your notes and then testing yourself as a study strategy is more effective in improving exam performance than simply studying your notes without testing yourself
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Hindsight Bias
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The I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon
There is always a common sense way to explain findings (hindsight bias) -Separation weakens romantic attraction—out of sight, out of mind. Or -Separation strengthens romantic attraction—absence makes the heart grow fonder. |
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Confirmation Bias
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The tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions/beliefs.
Looking only for confirming evidence ignores all other evidence To be scientific you must try to find disconfirming evidence |
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What is the Scientific Method?
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A systematic way of conducting research that progresses logically and extends our knowledge base.
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The Research Process
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Step 1: Establish a research question (should be very broad)
We often begin with a general question E.g., What methods of studying lead to better memory over a long period of time? Step 2: Develop a theory to answer your question Theory: An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. E.g., Information is remembered longer if learning is distributed over a long period of time. Step 3: Develop a hypothesis A testable prediction about a specific set of variables, often implied by a theory Step 4: Design the research How do you test the hypothesis? Step 5: Collect the Data Step 6: Evaluate our data Step 7: Interpret our data with respect to our theory Step 8: Loop! (replication |
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what makes good research?
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testable, what method was used? (case study, survey, sample), was the sample random and large (more than 100), having a control group (placebo), have consent, define operational differences
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research methods
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Descriptive Methods
Case study Survey Naturalistic observation Correlational Methods Experimental Methods |
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case study
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One subject studied in depth
Example Phineas Gage limitation: we cannot generalize |
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surveys
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A survey is the process of examining a phenomenon
Two common methods: paper and pen, or verbal longitudinal: over time cross sectional: done at 1 time limitations: no cause/ effect you dont know who you are surverying |
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Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation
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Observing behavior in the natural environment, without attempting to control or manipulate the situation
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Correlational Research
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Correlation = relationship between two variables; how does one variable change as another variable changes?
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Correlation coefficient
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statistical measure of a relationship
Direction = Can be positive (+) or negative (-) Strength = Range from +1.0 to -1.0 |
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Correlational Research:
Types of relations |
Positive
As one variable increases so does the other Negative As one variable increases the other decreases |
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Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
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low self esteem could cause depression
depression could cause low self esteem distressing events or biological predisposition: can cause low self esteem or depression |
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What is an experiment
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Method in which researcher manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.
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Key characteristics
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Random assignment
Control group |
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concussion
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any momentary lose of consciousness is the definition of a concussion
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motion related damage
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closed head injury
wipelash, brain bounces and hits back but then flings forward |
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what happens when you get a concussion
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2 places:
coup injury- site of the blow to the brain (primary impact) contre-coup injury: where the brain bounces off the skull. where your cerebellum is (secondary impact) |
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what happens to the brain with severe or multiple concussions?
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it swells and cuts off brain area vital to survival. it needs time to heal in between each head injury or else the brain stays swollen and puts too much pressure on the brain stem= death
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susceptability of the brain to shearing
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usually forces whiplash. shearing happens in brain and nerve cells can actually tear
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shearing equals DAI
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major cause of damage in DAI is the tearing of axons, the nueral processes that allows the neuron (nerve cell) to communicate with another
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what is a neuron ?
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a.k.a. nerve cell
Basic building block of the nervous system How our body transmits information (look at drawing of it) |
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what is the structure of a neuron?
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Cell body = soma
Life support of neuron Dendrites Receive information Axons Send information Myelin sheath Covers axon |
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Communication between Neurons
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Synapse = juncture between 2 neurons
Synaptic cleft |
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What happens when the action potential reaches terminal vesicles
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Release of neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitters & Primary Functions
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-Acetylcholine
Involved in muscle coordination -Dopamine Involved in movement and emotion -Serotonin Influences mood, sleep, and hunger -GABA Major inhibitory neurotransmitter (alcohol turns this off) -Endorphins Natural opiate |
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The Nervous System
2 main systems |
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Links CNS to sensory receptors, muscles & glands |
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Sensory neurons
Motor neurons Interneurons |
carry messages to CNS
carry messages away from CNS in between sensory input and motor output |
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Remember the peripheral nervous system
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Autonomic:
Sympathetic Parasympathetic |
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why do we care about neuropsychology?
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b/c the brain controls/regulates most behavior: depression= seratonin, aggression= testosterone/esterogen, memory=hippocampus
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how do we study the brain?
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lesion studies: looking at different sections of the brain by destroying them
electroencephalograph (EEG)= brain waves PET scans: injection of radioactive sugar allows researchers to observe brain activity MRI: provides picture of brain. reveals structure fMRI: function of each part of brain. 360 video of the brain. |
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what does each side of the brain look like?
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you can cut the brain directly down the middle and they will look identical
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corpus callosum
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holds the 2 hemispheres together (women have thicker ones= we can multi task)
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how do we study the brain?
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callosotomy: split the brain in half! cut corpus callosum
why? people with epilepsy hemispherectomy: removing half the brain!!! eventually your existing (the one they dont take out) hemisphere will do some work of the missing one |
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cerebral cortex
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Wrinkled outer layer of the brain (called bark), the thicker the better
Gray matter Conscious awareness Higher-level thinking |
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structure of cerebral cortex
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4 lobes within each hemisphere:
Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital |
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function of cerebral cortex
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-Motor
Sends information Controls body movement -Sensory Receives information |
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Frontal Lobe
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speech, muscle movement, and planning/judgment; location of motor cortex
CEO of brain: reasoning, appropriateness, decision making, personality, seat of broca's area left frontal lobe involved in speaking, word formation |
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temporal lobe
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location of auditory cortex
Associated with auditory processing Helps us recognize objects and faces Contains language area of the brain Seat of the hippocampus Seat of Wernicke’s area Left temporal lobe Processes incoming sounds |
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Parietal Lobe
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location of sensory cortex
Spatial navigation Integration of sensory info Sensory cortex |
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Brain plasticity
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= brain’s ability to modify itself, to reorganize in response to damage
Explains phantom limb syndrome |
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occipital love
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location of visual cortex
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Melding of brain areas
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After amputation:
Healthy brain tissue with nothing to do! |
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The Brainstem
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Most primitive part of the brain
Controls basic functions of life Breathing, heart rate, swallowing Includes: Medulla- Controls heartbeat and breathing Pons: Helps coordinate movement |
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Thalamus
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Sits at the top of the brainstem
The switchboard operator Receives information Routes information Reticular formation (= filter): passes through brainstem and thalamus Plays role in controlling arousal |
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Cerebellum
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Extends from the rear of the brainstem
Coordinates voluntary movement & balance |
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Limbic System
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Gateway to higher brain functions
Donut shaped Structures within the limbic system: Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampu |
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amygdala
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Composed of 2 lima-bean sized neural clusters
Involved in Aggression and fear Emotional memories |
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hypothalamus
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Lies just below the thalamus
Directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, regulating body temperature) Reward-center of brain Oversees pituitary gland Secretes hormones that trigger the “master gland” |
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Hippocampus
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Primary function: processing memory
Involved in learning |
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nature
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46 chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA Genes = segments of DNA |
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regular siblings
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conceived during different pregnancies
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fraternal twins
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result of two different sperm and eggs but are conceived during the same pregnancy
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identical twins
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conceived during the same pregnancy from the same sperm and egg that split apart
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nature on gender
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Androgen
Insensitivity Syndrome AIS= XY but dont have enough hormones to have a penis. genetically a boy but treated like a girl. |
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david reimer
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born a boy (penis got burnt off) raised as a girl (trying to achieve nurture overnature) he was clearly a boy, they couldn't hide it
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abandon nurture v. mature
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adopt nuture and nature
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Nurture = Environment
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Peer influence
Family influence Wealth or poverty Temperature Culture Education Stress Exercise |
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Parental Influence
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Begins in utero
Early experiences foster brain development Enriched environment leads to thicker brain cortex Embryos receive different levels of nutrition, exposure to toxins… continues once we are outside of the womb. In rat studies… randomly assign a group of rats to either impoverished environment or enriched environment… measure the thickness of the brain cortex. Study has been repeated, with same findings. We find the same results in studies of children who grow up in impoverished environments (in institutions with little physical contact, a few toys). Being handled helps the brain develop! Massaging preemie babies helps them to develop faster and go home sooner. Important to brain development Exposure to enriched environments increases neural connections in brain Parents matter! Especially at extremes Parents tend to influence education, discipline, interaction with authority figures But… shared environmental influences account for less than 10% of differences Other factors may be at |
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peer influence
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Peers tend to influence cooperation, style of interaction with others of similar ages, gaining popularity
Conformity plays a huge role Parents shape peer influences A child who dislikes of food, despite the parents urging, will likely try the food if other children around him/her are also eating it. A child who hears English spoken with one accident at home, and another at school, adopt the accent of the peers! Teenagers who start smoking typically have friends who smoke. How do parents shape peer influences? NOT BY TELLING YOU THAT YOUR FRIENDS ARE LOSERS… By choosing the neighborhoods to move to, school systems, enrolling their kids in daycare or athletic activities, climates, exposure to other cultures |
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cultural influences
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Culture = behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people
Norms = rules for accepted and expected behavior Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next Manifestations of culture? What is culture? How do we see it? What are the manifestations of culture? The size of cars, the amount of clothing on the beach, the type of close that are worn, the way people greet one another, the need for personal space, pace of life, child rearing practices As the human species, we are actually remarkably similar… regardless of culture we share the same lifecycle, speak and since in the same way, experience the same outcomes under conditions of warm and supportive parents, we all have language, relationships, senses, etc. There are also differences within culture (there’s the United States culture, within this culture there are many different ethnicities… African-Americans, Hispanics, Asians |
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The early school of psychology that employed the method of introspection was known as:
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structuralism
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Edward Titchener used the research method known as
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introspection.
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Researchers today can use technology such as CAT scans and fMRI scans to measure brain activity. Some researchers ask their subjects to describe elements of their experiences (e.g., sensations, images, feelings) while undergoing the scans. This ___________ technique is similar to the methodology of ___________.
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introspection; Titchener
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Dr. Prima has been hired to assess job satisfaction and worker productivity. Dr. Prima is most likely a(n) ______________ psychologist
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clinical
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In debating the origins of knowledge, Plato and Aristotle disagreed about the relative importance of
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nature and nurture.
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Understanding why a fear of darkness may have contributed to the survival of our human ancestors is most relevant to the _____________ perspective.
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evolutionary
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Structuralists introduced which research method to identify basic elements of the human mind?
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introspection
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If you were taking psychology prior to 1920, psychology was defined as “the science of __________________.”
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mental life
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Compared with the structuralists, early behaviorists were much LESS likely to focus on the study of:
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thinking.
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In the context of debates concerning the origins of knowledge, nature is to nurture as ____________ is to ____________.
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Descartes; Locke
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A focus on the extent to which behaviors and personality spring from drives and conflicts outside one’s own awareness is most relevant to the ____________ perspective.
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psychodynamic
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Natalie and Ray are seeing Dr. Becker for marital issues. Neither one of them has any psychopathology, but they are interested in strengthening their relationship. Dr. Becker is most likely a _________________ psychologist.
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counseling
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Wilhelm Wundt was both a _______________ and _______________:
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physiologist; philosopher
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Psychology is the scientific study of:
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behavior and mental processes.
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Inherited traits that increase the likelihood of reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the generations that follow. This pattern can be explained by the principle of:
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natural selection.
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The field of psychology is a collection of diverse subfields. Psychologists who conduct ____________ research contribute by expanding the knowledge base of psychology, whereas others who conduct ____________ research explore practical problems.
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basic; applied
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A focus on how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences is most relevant to the ____________ perspective.
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behavior genetics
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At the beginning of the school year, groups of college students were asked to predict a variety of their own social behaviors (e.g., calling their parents, voting in an election). The students reported being 84% confident in their self-predictions. However, they correctly predicted their own behavior only 71% of the time. This human tendency is known as:
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overconfidence.
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Historically, there have been many examples of “crazy sounding” ideas (e.g., out-of-body travel, extraterrestrial meteorites, Bigfoot, and others). The scientific approach for exploring these ideas is to:
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subject them to scrutiny.
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Jane and Sarah were watching the evening news when viewers were asked to call in about the city’s proposal to raise taxes. Later in the broadcast, the results were posted. Both Jane and Sarah were skeptical of the 68% of the viewers who supported the tax increase. They wondered who the people that called in were. Jane and Sarah are demonstrating:
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critical thinking.
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The “decision” as to whether a neuron fires or not can be described as most similar to:
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the majority rules.
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Milton has been having considerable trouble with his short-term memory. His family has noticed a number of mistakes Milton has been making (e.g., leaving doors unlocked, getting lost in the neighborhood, forgetting family member’s names). It appears that the _____________ producing neurons are deteriorating.
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Ach
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The work groups that neurons cluster into are known as:
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neural networks.
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In terms of your heartbeat, digestion, and glandular functioning, your body is a fairly well-oiled machine that works even when you are asleep. This is possible due to your:
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autonomic nervous system.
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After being startled awake in the middle of the night, it turns out the noise the woman heard was the closet rod breaking from the weight of her winter coats. Knowing that, she begins to calm down and her heart stops racing. Clearly her _____________ has been activated.
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parasympathetic nervous system
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People who engage in extreme sports often do this to feel the rush of epinephrine and norepinephrine. This rush comes from the:
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adrenal glands
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This endocrine gland secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands.
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the pituitary gland
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“Neurotransmitter” is to “synaptic gap” as “hormone” is to:
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bloodstream
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Depressed mood states are linked to ________ levels of serotonin and ________ levels of norepinephrine.
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low; low
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Those who suffer from schizophrenia have, amongst other things, an excess of dopamine. Therefore, medications used to treat this disorder are dopamine:
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antagonists.
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Which of the following does the autonomic nervous system most directly control?
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bladder contractions
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The work groups that neurons cluster into are known as:
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neural networks.
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If you were trying to describe the function of the somatic nervous system to a middle-school child, which of the following analogies might you use?
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It functions like a remote control that moves a robotic arm.
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The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine __________ blood pressure and __________ blood sugar levels.
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raises; raises
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J.B. was diagnosed with an imbalance in the regulation of calcium in his blood. This imbalance was due to abnormal:
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parathyroids
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