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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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In terms of theory of mind what can 1 year olds distinguish between? What bad skill do 3 year olds acquire (but only when collaborating with an adult)?
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Intentional and non-intentional behavior
3 year olds can engage in deceptive behavior when being scaffolded by an adult. (4 year olds can do it on their own) |
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3 year olds can reason about the ______ of others, but have difficulty reasoning about the ______ of others; This later expands to understanding about emotions such as pride and surprise
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desires; beliefs
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What did Bjorklund consider to be two essential abilities for theory of mind?
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Being able to view others as intentional agents
Ability to take the perspective of another |
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What three things emerge in infancy? (types of interactions, eyes, doing something to draw attention)
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Diatic and Triadic interactions
Whites of human eyes Pointing and reaching to draw attention (pro to demonstratives and roto request |
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Carpenter's dumbbell study that shows intention vs. non intention
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Adult will try to pull off ends or play with a dumbbell toy in some other way. If infant saw adult trying to do something the infant will repeat that action. Didn't attempt to tae bits off dumbbell if adult didn't. Infers that child understands some actions are intentional and others are not.
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Tomasello's study with incompetent caters and intention vs. non intention
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Actors did activities and there was sometimes an obstacle. Child will try to help them out without being urged.
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Were chimps successfull in all of Tomasellos events? Why were chimps not as successful as children?
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No they were only successful in the reaching tests
Chips can't infer need for help as well |
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Why were human-reared chimps better at the tasks? This supports the role of _____ in enhancing skelatal principles
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Chimps are competitive with their con species.
culture |
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Recognizing ________ is necessary for theory of mind but isn't sufficient
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intentionality
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What ability do false belief tasks hope to see if children have grasped?
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Perspective taking
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WHat are two studies that explore false beliefs? At what age are children successful?
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Smarties task (pencil box)
Maxie task (basket moved to other room) 4 year olds are able to conceptualize/recognize/know the view of others whereas 3 year olds do not |
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What theory states that learning may block problem solving?
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Gestalt theory
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What theory explains why 4 year olds are able to get rid of the "block" that doesn't lead to a helpful memory search and complete the false belief tasks?
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Representational change
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WHat is a representational deficit?
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A child is unable to represent the thoughts of others AND/OR has difficulty in dealing with 2 locations. (Maxie) or 2 pieces of information (smarties)
This is the reason that 3 year olds seem to fail when they have to consider 2 different beliefs or representations for one target |
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How is representationa change similar to object permanence tasks such as the A not B error?
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The child must inhibit a prepotent response
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WHat is the executive system? (executive function) Where does it operate in the brain?
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theoretical system that controls or oversees other cognitive processes such as inhibition, multi-tasking, monitoring actions etc.
Pre-frontal cortex |
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Why might it be important for a child to have executive function to succeed at the false belief tasks?
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So that they can inhibit their own knowledge
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What does Clements and Perner's research with Implicit vs. Explicit knowledge reveal about young children's ability to do false belief tests?
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Children under 4, as usual RESPONDED the incorrectly when told a story about where Sam the Mouse's ***** sister, Katie, hid his cheese, but even very young children looked in the right direction
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Are all cultures able to succeed at false belief tasks within the same time window? What does this suggest about childrne's understanding of people's actions?
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YES!
They understand them implicitly, emotionally and pragmatically before they are able to reason explicitly. |
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Can chimps infer human intentions? Do chimps have a full theory of mind? why or why not?
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yes, they can and they also can recognize human goals, intentions and even something about the knowledge of others (i.e., taking into account vvisual orientation of others when gesturing)
They do not succeed at false belief tasks so they don't have full theory of mind. |
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What is short-term memory?
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limited memory for info over a short time
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What is working memory?
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The ability to store info and manipulate it
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Where is semantic memory mostly dealt with by the brain?
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frontal and temporal lobes
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Both episodic and semantic memory can be communicated very _______
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flixibly
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How is episodic memory flexible?
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you can describe an event in very different ways, draw it , model it, recognize it in a photo you've never seen
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How is semantic memory flexible
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YOu can direct someone to a hall on campus by drawing a map even though you may have never encoded this information like that before
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Episodic memory is always gained in a ______ exposure
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single
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Semantic memory may or may not be acquired in a single exposure, how are you more likely to remember it?
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if it is made interesting or emotional
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How is depth of processing involved in memory encoding?
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the more deeply you analyze info and associate it with a context the more likely you are to encode it into memory
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Rank the three types of recall in terms of difficulty
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Recognition
Cued recall Free recall |
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What is a reason that emotional events tend to lead to better memory?
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We tend to talk about and think about more emotional events.
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What is a flashbulb memory?
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an extremely detailed and durable memory brought about by extreme emotion
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What study by Siqueland and Lipsett, 1966, showed that infants had associative memory?
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They CONDITIONED babies to turn their head in response to certain sounds
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WHat habituation/dishabituation paradigm shows that infants have ________ memory? why?
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recognition
When they recognize something they habituate. When something is novel they dishabituate |
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Babies show memory via imitation but also recall. How do they display recall behaviors at 9 months? 14 months?
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9 months: THey recall and imitate events that aren't naturally occurring, such as pressing a button to make sounds (this is when first manipulative toys tend to be introduced)
14 months: repeat an unusual action months after saw and adult do it (Meltzhoff rigged an experiment where adult pressed forehead against a wall panel to make a light go on.) |
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What study by Rouvee-Colier showed that experiences couldb be integrated by young infants and memory can endure for up to 2 weeks?
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Her ribbon study
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WHat is a script memory?
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A schema for organizing familiar recurring events for daily routines such as going to school. Also less frequent routines such as birthday parties
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Episodic memories are not always easily recalled by children. What is needed to formulate these memories and why is it important that we can express them?
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Requires a collaborative effort between parent and child.
These become a basis for social interaction later: Humans tell narratives |
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WHat brains system is important for the long term storage of information. What was the historical perspective on how this system operated during the first 2 years of life? What is evidence?
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Limbic system
believed not to work in the first 2 years of life (1980s) evidence: Adults with damage are worse with recognition but not habit memory |
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Studies with infant monkeys indicate that what happens first: hiabit learning or cognitive memory processes?
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habit learning
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Can human infants recall events from first year of life and talk about it several years later?
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yes
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Lesions in what system impair recognitioin and memory abilites in infant monkeys during the 1st month of life?
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W
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What did the study by Drummey and Newcombe show (autobiographical memory)? findings? What was interesting about 4 year olds?
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A puppet or an experimenter presented 10 facts to 4, 6, and 8 year olds. 1 week later they were asked to recall facts and say who presented them.
Found that there was a steady increase in performance as children age. 4 year olds created extra-experimental errors |
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WHy might 4 year olds have performed worse? WHere else have we seen these same issues?
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The task required a form of mnemonic funciotning because there was a conflict or compitition between functions. The FRONTAL CORTEX is involved in these and it matures later than 4 years
Seen same issues in the A-Not-B test when inhibition was necessary but only possible at 18 months due to development of the DLPFC. Also similar to adults and the Stroop test |
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What lesions in adults cause source amnesia that is similar to the above results?
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frontal lesions
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Where did fMRI studies find activation due to working memory? What connected these areas?
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DLPFC as (well as network including PFC and FC that becomes active as children age)
White matter tracts between frontal cortex and parietal regions. |
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What were the results of the study in which children with poor working memory were trained to have better working memory? did it work?
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Yes, it worked, and it showed that working memory can be trained during development
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What type of memory are habits a part of? Are they consciously accessible?
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Part of implicit memory; not consciously accessible
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Before something becomes a habit it is ________. Typically what part of the brain is responsible for habit formation (esp. actions)?
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learned
Basal ganglia |
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WHat are alpha band rhythms associated with? Beta bands? Gamma Bands?
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rest; lack of movement (not rest); lots of activity and attention
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WHat was Graybiel's experiment using these waves? What were the findings? WHat does this indicate about brain activity during a habit?
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She put rats through a T-shaped maze and they would turn left or right in response to a sound and got a reward if they turned correctly.
In first runs gamma activity was in the basal ganglia and cells fired in an uncoordinated fashion After a few trials, gamma waves faded and were replaced by beta waves, just after the rats had gone through the maze (i.e., after the task was successfully done). Cell firing became coordinated. Activity becomes peaceful after it becomes a habit |
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Why are habits usefull?
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they free up attention.
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One important part of memor in development is in forming habits that enable _______ __________
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further development
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WHat is one odd behavioral feature of teenagers?
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inconstancy
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WHat brain changes occur in teenagers?
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re-structuring between 12-25 years, with increasing whit matter and dendritic pruning progressives from rear to front of cortex
Stronger links between hippocampus and frontal cortex |
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Why is it important that the hippocampus and frontal cortex link?
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The hippocampus is involved in formation of new episodic memories; recollection; spatial information, including navigation; and possibly some corrdination of memories. So, linking to frontal cortex results in integration of memories and experience into decision making (this is an executive function)
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Teens use less of their brains to monitor performance and stay focused and plan than adults; whereas, adults use more brain to what?
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resist temptation
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What were the results of the experiment with the chimps humans and number grid?
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when numbers flash for 2/3 second and then disappear chimps and humans are correct 80% of the time. When numbers flash for 1/5 second, the chimps stay correct 80% and humans drop to 40%
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Why did we get these results?
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Human's must saccade and dont have enough time, but chimps have eidetic memory. (eidetic memory is also good in children, but fades at around 6 years
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In the false beliefs experiment with the hot air balloon, what was found? What two factors make false memories more likely?
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50% of people remembered and described the events even though they never happened
Context: The fake pics were presented with several real ones Plausibility: unlikely or implausible events aren't usually falsely remembered-- a big trip to Africa, an unpleasant medical procedure |
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What is a fuzzy trace memory?
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Automatic, intuitive memory for recalling the gist of things or essential meaning of things
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What theory explains why we though school was in the list?
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fuzzy trace memory
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Who is more likely to "remember" something they never actually saw? Why?
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Older children and adults because they often remember the gist of an experience rather than the exact details. As a result their memories may change to fit the essence of what they remember, causing them to have false memories. But children still experience false memories due to poor executive function (i.e., extra experimental errors)
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What is the main reason that young children have trouble recalling or recognizing items?
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They are less likely to organize facts categorically. Think: red, horse, green, cat, dog, yellow
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in the study involving the music playing balloon man and context for memory, what were the results?
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When you just read the paragraph with no pic not much was remembered. When the picture was shown before people were able to understand and remember. If picture presented after paragraph they were able to understand the idea in retrospect, but missed many details and didnt remember much.
A fourth group just saw a partial picture (i.e., what might have happened afterword) and they didnt remember much |
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The picture in the previous study acts as a ______ because it enables you to encode the info and remember it.
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schema
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Do all humans speak a language? At what age is it usually learned before?
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yes; usually before 6/7
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What is a native speaker judgment?
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A native speaker can say whether or not a sentence, word or sound combination is acceptable.
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What is greater, comprehension or production?
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comprehension
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What two things that we would normally judge as ungrammatical highlight the difference between competence and performance?
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Slips of tongue (sound roof prom)
False starts (We have, uh, did you go to the movies last, uh didn't you?) |
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Can languages change over time?
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Yes, and they are still rule governed (Think old english, which is completely different; middle english, which is barely comprehensible; and Early Modern English, like Shakespeare used)
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WHat was the great vowel shift? Is this still happening today?
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The sound of vowels changed over time (Mice used to sound like mess)
Vowels still changing to day (Pen is sounding more like Pin) |
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What is an example of how grammar has changed over time?
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Irregular verb words like broke and came, are remnants form the past (used to be regular and predictable)
Also most American dialects are losing the verb "Shall" |
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WHat is a creole?
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It is a Pidgin Language (used by two groups who interact but speak different languages )
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Do people speak Pidgin languages as a fist language?
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No, but they do have grammar, phonology, lexicons etc.
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What are phonetics? What is phonology?
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The sounds of a language
How the sounds are put together (also includes stress patterns; e.g., hotdog) |
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THe concept of ______ allows us to understand stress patterns, sentence pronunciation even when fast, and the way intonation effects meaning
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phonology
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Words are also called
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lexemes
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What is the smallest unit of meaning?
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morphemes
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How many morphemes: cats, unbuttoned, jumping, bug
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2; 3; 2; 1
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What are semantics? WHat are 2 things included in semantics?
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linguistic meaning, including word, phrase and sentence levels.
1. Entailment: "Mary swims beautifully" entails that Mary swims but "Mary swims" does not entail that she does it beautifully 2. Semantic properties of a word determine wheher or not the words can be combined (nonsense sentences) |
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What are pragmatics?
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the use of "context" in the interpretation of meaning
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Understanding of ______ context alows us to know what is meant when a doctor asks if you can lift the bag vs. when a friend asks you
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situational
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What are other forms of pragmatic knowledge?
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Language context, General knowledge, SHared or world knowledge.
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How is it that the speaker and hearer cooperate in conversations?
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The speaker infers what the hearer can reasonably be expected to know or to infer. The hearer must use a variety of strategies to unravel the message, because the message is really underspecified.
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What are 4 reasons that pragmatics is fairly late emerging?
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Requires inferring what others know (theory of mind)
Requires quite a bit of knowledge Requires logic Requires cooperation between speaker and hearer. |
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Who is the burden on in conversation with children?
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Burden is on others
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What is a register? What are the differences?
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Using different styles of language in different situations (talking to a baby, talking to a professor, talking to an intimate partner in private vs. in public)
Differences: word choices, politeness markers, intonation patterns, syntax |
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What is syntax or grammar?
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the structures of sentences and the ways words are arranged in phrases and sentence.
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Do parents teach language rules to children? WHy or wy not?
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NO, They can't because they do not have conscious knowledge of them.
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WHat are some ways that developmentalists gather data naturalistically?
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Diaries kept by parents
Audiotapes with contextual notes Videotapes Experimental tasks and/ or standadized assessments of other aspects of development (i.e., social maturity scales. |
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Why are the first sounds babies make initially the same around the world?
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Because of the sequence of myelination of the mout and facial muscles.
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What are the first sounds babies make? What comes after and at what age?
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Cooing by about 2 months
Babbling from about 6 months [m, b, p, t, d]( also vowel sounds [a] [i] |
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Do deaf babies babble?
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yes
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Does babbling have any meaning?
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no, all meaning is imposed by parents (this is why the words for mom and dad are the same between languages)
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When does the 2 word stage begin?
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after the vocabulary burst
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What experiment shows that 2 words can mean a myriad of different things?
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the "Mommy Shoe" experiments
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_______ is particularly important during the 2 word phase
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negation
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Why do children say things like holded and foots?
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because they often overgeneralize regular morpheme markers for thins such as past and plural
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WHat is the sequence of development for past tense in english?
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1. use only present tense forms: go, jump, run
2. Use several irregular forms (not over 2 years old) 3. Identify the regular past tense morpheme /d/ and apply it to all verbs: jumped, runned, ranned, goed 4. Adult like forms |
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What is MLU? WHich phrase is more complex: Baby Cry. Daddy jumping.
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Mean length of utterance
Daddy jumping because it is 3 morphemes |
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What 2 general principles seem to guide early syntactic development?
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1. Look for a grammatical marker that indciates the underlying concept
-no -WH- words 2. Don't interrupt the nuclear sentence (until you've just about mastered the form) |
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What is the typical development sequence for negation?
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No I want nap
I no want nap I don't want a nap |
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What are the adult like structures for negation?
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do support: I don't want a nap
Copula: This is not ice cream Auxiliary: I am not crying |
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What is the typical developmental sequence for questions?
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1. Intonation only (see doggie?)
2. Look for grammar marker (where baby shoe?) 3. Use of Do and WH- as grammatical markers placed outside longer Sentences (Did i caught it?) |
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When is a child unable to imitate what they hear?
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When the sentence cannot be generated by their own grammar
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What were the results of the Wug study?
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Even young children were correct a lot of the time in saying the plural form was Wugs.
Shows that children dont just memorize forms Demonstrates that the child has created a rule and can apply it to correct forms. |
