Psc 101 Midterm 1

Front 1

Growing knowledge of ____ mechanisms of behavior are often over-interpreted

Back 1

biological

Front 2

What are the 5 perspectives to studying behavior?

Back 2

Description
Evolution
Application
Mechanism
Development

Front 3

What are some social behaviors displayed in rodents? (describing behavior)

Back 3

Parental care
Social Investigation (sniffing)
Allogrooming
Aggression
Mating

Front 4

Levels of analysis

What is the best level of analysis?

Back 4

Range from circuit levels, to cellular and molecular levels all the way to social levels

NO ONE LEVEL IS BEST

The most far reaching science usually can explain behavior at multiple levels of analysis

Front 5

What is an example of cellular and molecular levels?
Social levels?
Circuit level?

Back 5

hormones bind to receptors and alter gene expressions.

Exposure to mouse pups

maternal behavior circuit from olfactory bulb to amygdala to hypothalamus

Front 6

How does development alter the brain and behavior? What is maternal behavior determined in part by?

Back 6

Early life experience

Front 7

Evolution: All vertebrates share a common ancestor. The idea that similarities in brain structure and function, as well as similarities in behavior allows researchers to do what?

Back 7

compare results from experiments on humans and animals

Front 8

What is proximate level of causation?

Back 8

an immediate underlying cause based on operation of internal mechanisms possessed by an individual

This includes neuronal/ hormonal mechanisms, as well as developmental effects

Front 9

What is the ultimate level of causation?

Back 9

The evolutionary cause behind a trait
-Natural selection
-Sexual selection

Front 10

What were the results involving ultimate causes on the removal of the father from the nest of the monogamous California mouse?

Back 10

When father is removed, fewer pups emerge from the nest

Front 11

Ultimate causes as applied to social interaction: Why are mice motivated to engage in social interaction?

Back 11

Potential mates
Potential competitors
Family Members

Front 12

_____ social interactions_____ social withdrawal in many species including: birds, rodents and primates

Back 12

Stressful, induces

Front 13

What are the effects of stress and social interactions in humans?

Back 13

social withdrawal in associated with several mental disorders

Mental disorders can be induced by stress

Front 14

What are the effects of social stress on behavior in mice and antidepressants?

Back 14

Mice that lose aggressive interactions show decreases in social interaction

This effect can be reversed with chronic antidepressant treatment

---stress reduces social interaction and only chronic administration of imipramine or fluoxetine can reverse the effects of social stress

These studies focused on behavior that is based on species-specific social interactions

Front 15

What are some practical applications of biological psychology?

Back 15

It can provide explanations for brain disorders and help to devise treatments

-1/5 people suffers from some form of neurological or psychiatric disorder

Front 16

What is schizophrenia and what are the hypothesized causes?

Back 16

Symptoms include dissociative thinking or impaired logical thought, as a key symptom, auditory hallucinations, personalized delusions and changes in affect.

-Environmental factors are proposed to only explain 50% of variability in the prevalence of schizophrenia
-Viral infections, deliver complications, and psychosocial stress are all environmental factors

Genetic causes are prevalent

HIGH STRESS AND MANY CONTRIBUTING ALLELES CORRELATED WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA

Front 17

What are glial cells?

Back 17

originally thought of as the "glue" that holds nerve cells together, but it has become clear that they have important effects on neural transmission

Front 18

What are the different types of glial cells and what are their function?

Back 18

Astrocytes
-Star shaped
-regulate neural transmission and blood flow

Microglia
-can move about within the brain
-migrate to sites of injury or disease

Front 19

What are oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells?

Back 19

They are cells that wrap axons with myelin.

-They are called oligodendrocytes in the CNS
-Called Schwann cells in the PNS

Front 20

What is multiple scerosis? symptoms and causes

Back 20

Reduced myelin caused be destruction of oligodendrocytes disrupts electrical signals and neural communication

Severity can vary

Treatments are immunosuppressants or nothing

Causes difficulty with coordination, cognitive impairment, blurred vision and speech problems

Front 21

What are action potentials?

Back 21

a.k.a nerve impulses

Brief but large changes in membrane potential

Carry info to target cells

Front 22

What is the biological basis of Action Potentials?

Back 22

Neuronal activity (and therefore behavior), is based on the movement of ions into and out of neurons

In a normal state Na+ is kept outside and K+ is kept inside the cell
--this is called the sodium-potassium pump

Front 23

How are action potentials produced?

Back 23

produced by the movement of Na+ ions into the cell

After reaching a peak (40mV), K+ channels are opened and K+ rushes out of the cell, resulting in hyper polarization

Resting state restored when Na+ is pumped out and K+ is pumped back in

Front 24

What is saltatory conduction?

Back 24

the axon potential travels inside the axon and jumps from node to node?

Front 25

How does AP frequency differ?
How long is AP refractory period?
In what way does AP occur?

Back 25

can vary from a few pulses per second to a max of 1000 pulses per second

Have a refractory period of about 1 msec

AP is all or none

Front 26

In what ways in neural information transmitted at they synaptic level?

Back 26

Neurotransmitters can influence the resting potential of other neurons at chemical synapses

Besides chemical synapses there are electrical synapses, or gap junctions. Ions flow directly through large channels into adjacent cells, with no time delay

Front 27

What is EPSP?

Back 27

Excitatory postsynaptic potential-

EPSP's usually result from sodium ions entering the cell, making the inside more positive.

Front 28

What is IPSP?

Back 28

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential-

IPSP's usually result from chloride ions (Cl-) making the inside more negative.

Both IPSP's and EPSP's can be influenced by either chemical or electrical synapses

Front 29

What is the chemical synapse sequence of transmission?

Back 29

1. Action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminal
2. Opens Voltage-gated calcium channels
3. Synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane and release transmitter into the cleft
4. Transmitters bind to the postsynaptic receptors(causing EPSP or IPSP)
5. Transmitter is inactivated or removed- action is brief

Front 30

What are ligands and the different types of ligands?
What are agonist and antagonist ligands?

Back 30

Ligands fit receptors and activate or block them
Endogenous ligands
- neurotransmitters and hormones
Exogenous ligands
-drugs and toxins from outside the body

Agonist: ligand that binds a receptor and activates a receptor
Antagonist: ligand that binds a receptor and prevents activation of the receptor
(Endogenous just agonists, and exogenous both?)

Front 31

How was opium used to discover endogenous neurotransmitter systems?

Back 31

Opioids extracted from poppy seeds and used since the stone age.

Opiod receptor found by Candace Pert and Sol Snyder

Endogenous opiod: Beta-endorphin reduce perception of pain

Front 32

What happens after a neurotransmitter is released into the synapse?
What happens to serotonin in the presence of monoamine oxidase A in the synapse?

Back 32

It is either destroyed or recycled

It can be destroyed

Front 33

How are SSRI's supposed to work?

Back 33

-SSRI blocks reuptake
-Increase in serotonin in synapse binds to autoreceptors
-Decreased firing of serotonin neurons over a period of weeks
-Downregulation of auto receptors
-increased firing of serotonin neurons
-"magic" leads to behavioral effects

Front 34

What is the difference between electrical and chemical synapses?

Back 34

the distance between neurons is 1/10th that of chemical synapses

sygnals pass from one neuron to the next with virtually no time delay

Front 35

What systems to electrical synapses control?

Back 35

they control systems that must work quickly such as escape mechanisms in invertebrates or systems that control eye movement

Front 36

What is a reflex arc? Example? What does this example reflex consist of?

Back 36

a neural chain is a simple series of neurons

an example of this would be the knee jerk reflex:
-a circuit for the stretch reflex, consisting of: a sensory neuron, a motor neuron and a synapse

Front 37

Why is the knee Jerk Reflex so extremely fast? (3 reasons)

Back 37

1. myelinated neuron
2. Electrical synapse
3. ONly 2 neurons and 1 synapse

Front 38

It was thought that only the axons send information, but this is now known not to be the case. How do dendrites regulate information flow?

Back 38

Dendritic release regulates release of neurotransmitters from axon terminals

action potential can only be generated next to the cell body and not at the axon terminal

Although most neurontransmitters are released from axon terminals, there are exceptions
--makes bidirectional flow of information possible

Front 39

What are cannabinoids?

Back 39

neurotransmitters produced in the brain that resemble tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

E.g., anamide is released from the dendrite and inhibits Ca2+ and therefore neurotransmitter release

Front 40

What are the tow cannabinoid receptors found in the human body?

Back 40

CB1 receptor: predominantly expressed in brain and responsible for psychoactive effects including appetite and activation of networks influencing motivation

CB2 receptor: agonists for this receptor are not psychoactive. Some compounds are known to reduce pain perception

Front 41

Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT). What is a limitation of this technique? A strength?

Back 41

a measure of X-ray absorbiton at several positions around the head, maps tissue density

CAN'T SEE SPECIFIC BRAIN STRUCTURES WELL

GOOD AT DETECTING INJURIES

Front 42

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). What does this scan do that the CAT scan cannot? What does this type of scan not assess

Back 42

Gives higher resolution images

Uses magnets and radio waves to determine tissue density in the brain

Allows researchers to see structure, but cannot assess activity

Front 43

Positron emission tomograpy (PET). What does this scan do that the MRI cannot?

Back 43

give images of brain activity

uses radioactive chemicals injected into the bloodstream and maps their destination by the radioactive emissions

By injection radioactive glucose, can determine which brain areas are active during a specific activity

Front 44

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Back 44

detects small changes in brain metabolism, like oxygen use, in active brain areas

fMRI can show how networks of brain structures respond to various stimuli or while performing specific tasks

Front 45

What does the sympathetic nervous system do?

Back 45

prepares the body for quick action
-mobilization of energy (catabolic processes)
-increased heart rate
-increased respiration

Front 46

WHere are sympathetic nerves found, and what do they regulate?

Back 46

Sympathetic nerves are found in the cervical ganglion and they regulate the function of other organs, primarily through the release of norepinephrine

Front 47

What is a Skin Conductance Response?

Back 47

A change in the levels of sweat in the sweat glands

Caused by activation of sympathetic nervous system (involuntary)

Often used as a marker of arousal, emotion, and attention

Front 48

What is the Parasympathetic Nervous System?

Back 48

Generally acts in the opposition to sympathetic nervous system:
-Slows heart rate
-vasodialtation
-increased digestion
-Anabolic activities

Front 49

Where are parasympathetic nerves located?
How do they affect organ function?

Back 49

Just below brainstem and above spinal cord

Primarily through the release of acetylcholine

Includes vagus nerve
-slows heart rate

Front 50

Difference between white matter and gray matter

Back 50

White matter consists mostly of myelinated axons

Gray contains more cell bodies and dendrites, which lack myelin

Front 51

What is the amygdala? What does it do? What if its damaged?

Back 51

Highly complex brain region
Involved in processing emotional information
Brain damage inhibits ability to recognize fearful facial expressions

Front 52

What do the different lobes of the cortex do in the forebrain?

Back 52

Frontal: Planning future action, motor control, etc

Parietal: Somatosensory (pain, temperature, touch)

Occipital: Vision

Temporal: Hearing/Language/Memory

Front 53

What is the Basal Ganglia?

Back 53

A group of brain regions that includes regions in the Forebrain and Midbrain

Neurons in the midbrain make dopamine
Neurons in the forebrain have dopamine receptors

Front 54

What does the cerebellum do?

Back 54

involved with central regulation of movement

also regulates conditioned reflexes (such as eye blink)

Front 55

What is the blood-brain barrier?

Back 55

Tight junctions between endothelial cells forming blood vessels in the brain prevent large molecules from passing from blood into the brain.

Helps prevent infections and toxins from coming into contact with brain cells
- also prevents many hormones and drugs from accessing neural cells

Front 56

What is the ventricular system?

Back 56

A series of chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Front 57

What is the function of CSF?

Back 57

act as a shock absorber

Provide an exchange medium between blood and brain

Front 58

What are ventricles?

Back 58

The lateral ventricle in each hemisphere extends into all four lobes- is lined with the choroid plexus, a membrane that produces CSF

The choroid plexus filters blood so that nutrients can access brain cells. Some macromolecules can "leak" through into the CSF

Front 59

What are the 6 stages of Neural development?

Back 59

1. Neurogenesis: mitosis produces neurons
2. Cell migration: cells move to establish distinct populations
3. Differentiation: cells become distinctive neurons or glial cells
4. Synaptogenesis: establishment of synaptic connections
5. Neuronal cell death: selective death of some nerve cells
6. Synapse rearrangement: loss or development of synapses, fine-tuning

Front 60

What is neurogenesis? Do neurons divide?

Back 60

New neurons and glial cells are formed in a part of the neural tube called the ventricular zone

Neurons dont divide themselves but are a product of cell division

Front 61

What is cell migration? How do cells migrate?

Back 61

cells move away from ventricular layer

Radial glial cells act as guides for cells to migrate along

Front 62

What is Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)?

Back 62

The Master Hormone

regulates estrogen and progesterone secretion from ovaries in females

controls menstrual cycles and fertility

regulates testosterone secretion in testes and influences sperm production in males

Front 63

What is Kallmann's Syndrome?

Back 63

Men develop without and olfactory bulb
-Anosmic: can not smell

Coincides with small testes and infertility

Diseases that disrupts olfactory system development will influence fertility because the cells that handle reproduction originate in the olfactory system

Front 64

What happens during cell differentiation?

Back 64

When cells reach their destinations they begin to express genes to make the proteins they need
This cell differentiation allows a cell to acquire its specific appearance and function

Front 65

What are the two classes of influences on differentiation?

Back 65

Cell-autonomous: independent of other cells and driven by genes, intrinsic organization as seen in vitro

Neural environment: differentiation affected by other cells (the way you grow up is determined by what your friends are doing)

Front 66

What is Sonic hedgehog? Is it the presence or absence that influences cell differentiation?

Back 66

a gene that regulates cell differentiation?

Neither, it is the relative concentration of sonic hedgehog

Front 67

What are the two chemical classes that influence synaptogenesis?

Back 67

Chemoattractants: chemical signals that attract growing axons

Chemorepellents: repel growing axons

Front 68

What is apoptosis? Which enzyme is produced during this process?

Back 68

cell death, which is a normal part of development

Caspases are the enzymes produced by neurons that cut up proteins and DNA

Front 69

Contrast Apoptosis and Necrosis

Back 69

Apoptosis: Neuron turns on a set of genes that results in the production of caspases that destroy the cell
- it is then recycled by the immune system

Necrosis: neuron dies as a result of an insult (like a stroke or toxin). The neuron swells up and leaks
- dead cells build up and can cause inflammation

Front 70

How are neurons kept alive

Back 70

Growth factors produced by targets are taken up by the axons of innervating neurons

If it doesn't get enough growth factor, the neuron begins apoptosis

Front 71

What happened when the ephrin-A receptor was inactivated in mice?

Back 71

overgrowth of forebrain and abnormal folding

Front 72

How did researchers track cortical development? what were their findings?

Back 72

Took brain scans of children with an MRI every 2 years for 8-10 years and tracked the changes

Found that as time went on the density of neurons went down. and the frontal lobe was the last one to undergo apoptosis

Front 73

What is synaptic rearrangement? What is one influence on synaptic survival?

Back 73

a.k.a. synaptic remodeling, refines synaptic connections.

one influence is neural activity

Front 74

What happens when rats are placed in either an enriched environment or standard environment?

Back 74

Enriched are better at learning and problem solving tasks, have larger cerebral cortexes, increased dendritic branching and males also fight more

Front 75

What are the causes of the mutations in the cerebellum of weaver and reeler mice?

Back 75

Weaver: missing the granule cell type, but the alignment of the Purkinje cells is normal

Reeler, both cell types are present but their alignment is abnormal

2 different mechanisms for the same phenotype

Front 76

What do genes do in development?

Back 76

They regulate cell differentiation and direct neuronal migration and organization

Front 77

What happens when monocular deprivation occurs during a sensitive period?

Back 77

causes the deprived eye to not respond in adulthood

Front 78

Ocular dominance histogram experiment on cats

Back 78

Normal vision: normal distribution (most in middle, some outliers)

Monocular: lose neurons responding to both eyes (only respond to left or right side, always the same side)

One eye deviated: use either opposite side or same side, rarely both

Binocular: use all almost equally

Front 79

Important notes regarding visual system development

Back 79

-Normal development stimulates neurons in the visual system to respond to cues coming from both eyes

-Closing one eye during the sensitive period results in the brain ignoring information from that eye when it is opened during adulthood

-When eyes are not aligned, the retinas do not send information to neurons on the opposite side of the brain resulting in bad depth perception

-Losing sight in both eyes for a brief period of time is less disruptive than losing sight in one eye

Front 80

What is fragile X syndrome? Which sex is most effected? How is it caused?

Back 80

A mutation in a gene of the X chromosome

A high number of CGG repeats leads to fragile X syndrome by preventing the gene from functioning normally (it is silenced)

Most common inherited cause of mental retardation

Impact is more severe in males

Front 81

What is Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)? How is it caused?

Back 81

Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

Most individuals have low IQ and some learning difficulties

Front 82

What are the 3 axes of autism spectrum disorder?

Back 82

1. Social interaction: the hallmark feature, child often unresponsive to people and are indifferent to social engagement

2. Communication (verbal and nonverbal): may fail to respond to their name and avoid eye contact

3. Repetitive behaviors: repetitive movements such as rocking, twirling, biting, or head banging

Front 83

How can autism vary?

Back 83

Behaviors can range in impact from mild to disabling

There appears to be a degree of independence between the three axes
e.g., a child can avoid all eye contact, yet not display any repetitive behaviors

Front 84

What is the mechanism behind Autism spectrum disorder?

Back 84

People with autism may be unable to empathize with ohters and may have difficulty trying to mimic movements or facial expressions

This can be due to low activation of a frontal cortex area containing mirror neurons

Front 85

Cause of autism?

Back 85

No consensus for a single cause of autism

Most likely, numerous genes and environmental factors interact to produce autistic symptoms

No scientifically accepted connection between vaccinations and autistic symptoms

Front 86

What are some biological factors affecting memory due to aging? What does the septal complex do?

Back 86

The septal complex provides input to the hippocampus
-many of its neurons use acetylcholine (ACh) as their neurotransmitter
-This pathway seems to be involved in memory decline