Ps 101 Midterm 1

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Psychoanalytic Theory

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Psychological theory that human mental processes are influenced by the competition between unconscious forces to come into awareness

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Behaviourism

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A branch of psych thought arguing that psych should study only directly observable behaviours rather than abstract mental processes

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reinforcement

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a learning process that increases the likelihood a given response will be repeated

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punishment

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an experience that produces a decrease in a particular behaviour

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Humanistic Psychology

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Theory of psychology that sought to give greater prominence to special and unique features of human functioning

(full potential)

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Carl Rogers

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Humanistic pioneer- founder of client centered therapy

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Client- Centered Therapy

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founded by Carl Rogers. based on the notion that the client is an equal and positive gains are made by mirroring clients thoughts and feelings in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard.

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Cognitive Psychology

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The field of psychology studying mental processes as forms of information processing, or the ways in which information is stored and operated in our minds

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Information processing

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the means by which information is stored and operates internally

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Cultural Psychology

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The study of how cultural practices shape psychological and behavioural tendencies and influence human behaviour

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Cross-cultural psychology

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the study of what is generally or universally true about human beings regardless of culture

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Neuroscience

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the study of psychological functions by looking at biological foundations of those functions

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Sociobiologists

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Theorists who believe humans have genetically innate concept of how social behaviour should be organized

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Behavioural genetics

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A subfield of psychology looking at the influence of genes in human behaviour

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Evolutionary psychology

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a field of study believing that the body and brain are products of evolution and that genetic inheritance plays an important role in shaping the complete range of thoughts and behaviours

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Cultural Universality

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Behaviours and practices that occur across all cultures

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Academic psychology

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A branch of psychology focusing on research and instructions in the various areas or field of study in psychology

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Applied psychology

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The branch of psychology applying psychological principles to practical problems in other fields, suh as education, marketing, or industry

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Cliical and COunselling Psychology

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the study of abnormal psychlogical behaviour and interventions designed to change tht behaviour

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Collectivist

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A culture whose members focus more on the needs of the group and less on individual desires

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Individualistc

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A culture that places the wants or desires of the person over the needs of the group

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COgnitive Neuroscience

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The study of mental processes and how they relate to the biological functions of the brain

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Social neuroscience

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The study of social functioning and how it is tied to brain actitivty

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Variable

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Condition, event or situation that is studied in an experiment

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Independant variable

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Condition or event that is thought to be a factor in changing another condition or event

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Dependant variable

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condition or event that you expect to change as a result of variations in the independant variable

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Operationalize

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to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it

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Sample

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the group of people studied in an experiment used to stand in for an entire group of people

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Randomselection

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Identifying a sample in such a way that everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of being involved

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Descriptive research method

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studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest without specifying a casual relationship

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Case study

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study focusing on a single person

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Naturalistic observation

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a study in which researchers directly observe people in a study behaving as they normally do

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Hawthorne Effect

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People who are being observed in studies or at their workplace improve or change some of their behaviour simply because they are being watched or studied, not in response to an experimental manipulation

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Survey

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Study in which researchers give participants a questionnaire or interview them

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Experiment

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Controlled obersvation in which researchers manipulate the presence or amount of the independant variable to see what effect it has one the dependant variable

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Experimental group

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group that is exposed to the independent variable

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Controlgroup

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group that has not been or will not be exposed to the independent variable

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Double blind procedure

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study in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows what treatment or procedure the partcipant is receiving

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Correlation

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predictable relationship between two or more variables

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Correlation coefficient

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Statstic expressing the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables

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Positive correlation

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relationship in which on average scores on two variables increase together

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Negative correlation

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relationship in which on average, scores on one variabel increase as scores on another variable decrease

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Perfect correlation

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One in which two variables are exactly related such that low medium and high scores on both variables are always exactly related

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Mean

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average of a set of scores

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Standard deviation

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statistical index of how much more scores vary within a group

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replication

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repeated test of a hypothesis to ensure that the results you ahieve in one expeiment are not due to chance

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Developmental Psychology

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the study of changes in behaviour and mental processes over time and the factors that influence the course of those constancies and changes

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Cross sectional design

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a research approach that compares groups of different aged people to one another

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Longitudinal design

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A research approach that follows the same people over a period of time by administering the same tasks or questionnaires and seeing how their responses change

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Cohort-sequential design

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blended cross sectional and longitudinal reserch, designed to look at how individuals from different age groups compare to one another and to follow them over time

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Maturation

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The unfolding of development in a particular sequence and time frame

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Epigenetic

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changes in gene expression that are independent of the DNA sequence

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stage

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a distinct developmental phase in which organisms behave, think or respond in a particular way that is qualitatively different from the way they responded before

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critical periods

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points in development when an organism is extremely sensitive to eviromental input, making it easier for the organism to acquire certain brain functions and behaviours

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prenatal period

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the period of development from conception to birth

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Gene

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basic building blocks of our biological inheritance

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DNA

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molecules in which geneitic information is enclosed

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chromosomes

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strands of DNA each human has 46

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Geno type

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persons genetic inheritance

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phenotype

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the obersvable manisfestation of a persons genetic makeup

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allele

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variation of a gene

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homozygous

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both parents contribute the same genetic material for a particular trait

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Heterozygous

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parents contribute two different alleles to offspring

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Dominant trait

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a trait that is expressed in a phenotype, no matter where the genotype is homo or hetero for the trait

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recessive trait

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a trait that is only expressed if a person carries the same two genetic alleles

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Condominance

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in a heterozygous combination of alleles, both traits are expressed in the off spring

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discrete trait

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a trait that results as the product of a single gene pairing

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polygenic trait

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a trait that manifests as the result of the contribution of multiple genes

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zygote

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a single cell resulting from succesful fertilization of the egg by sperm

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Placenta

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a nutrient rich structure that serves to feed the developing fetus

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miscarriage

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discharge of the fetus from the uterus before it is able to function on its own

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teratogens

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any enviromental agent that causes damage during gestation

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Proximodistal pattern

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a pattern in which growth and development proceed from the centre to the extremities

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cephalocaudal pattern

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a pattern in which growth and development proceed from top to bottom

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reflexes

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programmed physical reactions to certain cues that do not require any conscious thought to perform

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motor skills

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the ability to control bodily movements

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Cognitive development

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changes in thinking that occur over the course of time

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scheme

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piagets proposed mental structures or framworks for understanding or thinking about the world

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assimilation

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one of two ways of acquiring knowledge defined by piaget as the inclusion of new information or experiences into pre-exisiting schemes

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accomodation

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one of the two ways of acquiring knowledge, defined by Piagets as the alteration of preexisiting mental frameworks to take new informaiton

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equilibrium

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balance in mental framework

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Object permanence

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an infants realization that objects continue to exist even when they are outside of immediate sensory awarenes

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preoperational stage

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according to piaget, a developmental stage during which children begin to devleop ideas of objects in the external world

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egocentrism

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flaws in childrens reasoning based on their inability to take another persons perspecitive

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conservation

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the understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in the objects outward appearence

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concrete operational

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piagetian stage during which children are able to talk about complex relationships such as categorization and cause and effect, but are still limited to understanding ideas in terms of real-world relationships

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operations

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piagetian description of childrens ability to hold an idea in their mind and mentally manipulate it

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Formal operational stage

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piagets final stage of cognitive development when children achieve hypothetical eductive reasoing and the ability to think abstractly

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information processing theory

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a developmental theory focusing on how children learn, remember, organize and use information from the enviroment

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violation- of -expectation

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an experimental approach capitalizing on infants and toddler heightened reactions to an unexpected event

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habituation

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the process of habituating in which individuals pay less attention to a stimulus after it is presented to them over and over again

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theory of mind

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an awareness of ones own mental states and the mental states of others

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scaffolding

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developmental adjustments that adult make to give children the help that they need, but not so much that they fail to move forward

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zone of proximal development

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the gap between what a child could accomplish alone and what the child can accomplish with help from others

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temperament

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a biologically based tendency to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout a persons lifetime

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attachment

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a significant emotional connection to another person such as a baby to a primary caregiver

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Authoritative parenting

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warm and nurturing, makes reasonable demands

results the child having a high self esteem, cooperativeness, and self control

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Authoritarian parenting

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Critical of child, cold and rejecting

results in the child having low self esteem, being unhappy and often angry

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Permissive parenting

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overindulgent and inattentive, but warm and accepting

Leads tochildren being impulsive, disobedient, and overly dependant on adults

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Uninvolved Parenting

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emotionally detached and depressed, no enery for child rearing

child becomes anxious, antisocial, and have poor communication skills

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reciprocal socialization

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the transactional relationship between parent and child

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Primary sex characteristics

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changes in body structure that occur during puberty that have to do specifically with the reproductive system

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secondary sex characteristics

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changes tha occur during puberty and that differ according to gender but aren't directly related to sex

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Preconventional stage

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Kohlbergs first stage in his developmental theory

Morality centres on what you can get away with

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Conventional stage

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Kohlbergs second stage in his devleopmental theory

Morality centres on avoiding others disapproval and obeying society's rules

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Postcoventional stage

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Kohlbergs third stage

Morality is determined by abstract ethical principles

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Kohlberg

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Came up with a developed stage theory of moral development

the focus is moral reasoning, how children come to their decisions about what is right or wrong

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Trust vs Mistrust

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Stage one of Eriksons theory birth-1

Infants develop a basic trust in others. If their needs are not met by their caregivers, mistrust develops

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Autonomy vs shame and doubt

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Stage two of Eriksons Theory, 1-3

Children exercise their new motor and mental skills. if caregivers are encouraging, children develop a sense of autonomy vs shame and doubt

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Initiative vs guilt

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Stage 3 of Eriksons theory, 3-6

Children enjoy initiating activities and mastering new tasks. Supportive caregivers promote feelings of power and self-confidence versus guilt

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Industry vs inferiority

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Stage 4 of Eriksons Theory, 6-12

Children learn productive skills and develop the capcity to work with others; if not, they feel inferior

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Identity vs role confusion

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Stage 5 of Eriksons theory, 12-20

Adolescents seek to develop a satisfying identity and a sense of their role in society. Failiure may lead to a lack of stable identity and confusion about their adult roles

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Intimacy vs isolation

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stage 6 of Eriksons theory, 20-30

Young adults work to establish intimate relationships with others; if they cannot they face isolation

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Generativity vs self absorption

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Stage 7 of Eriksons theory, 30-65

Middle aged adults seek ways to influence the welfare of the next generation. If they fail, they may become self-absorbed

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Integrity vs despair

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Stage 8 of Eriksons theory, 65+

Older people reflect on the lives they have lived. If they do not feel a sense of accomplishment they will live fearing death

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menopause

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series of changes in horomonal function occuring in women during their 50s which leads to an end in the menstrual cycle.

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cellular clock theory

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theory suggesting that we age because our cells have built-in limits on their ability to reproduce

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wear and tear theory

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theory suggesting we age ebcause use of our body wears out

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free-radical theory

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theory suggesting we age because special negatively charged oxygen molecules become more prevalent in our body as we get older destabilizing cellular structures and causing the effects of aging

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perception

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the conscious recognition and identification of a sensory stimulus

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sensory receptor cells

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specialized cells that convert a specific form of enviromental stimuli into neural impulses

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Sensory transduction

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the process of converting a specific form of enviromental stimuli into neural impulses

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Olfactory (smell)

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Stimuli

Odorants

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Somatosensory (touch,heat,pain)

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stimuli

pressure or damage to the skin

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Gustatory (taste)

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stimuli

chemicals

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Auditory(hearing)

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Physical stimuli

sound waves

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Visual

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stimuli

light

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absolute threshold

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the minimal stimulus necessary for detection by an individual

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difference threshold

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the minimal difference between two stimuli necessary for detection of a difference between the two

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sensory adaptation

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the process whereby repeated stimulation of a sensory cell leads to a reduced response

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bottom-up processing

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perception that proceeds by trnsducing enviromental stimuli into neural impulses that move into successively more complex brain regions

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top down processing

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perception processes ld by cognitive processes, such as memory or expectations

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perceptual set

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readiness to interpet a certain stimulus in a certain way

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olfactory sense

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our sense of smell

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gustatory sense

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our sense of taste

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odorants

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airbone chemicals that are detected as odours

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olfactory receptor neurons

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sensory receptor cells that convert chemical signals from odorants into neural impulses that travel to the brain

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papillae

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bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds

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taste buds

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clusters of sensory receptor cells that convert chemical signals from food into neural impulses that travel to the brain

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olfactory bulb

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the first region where olfactory information reaches the brain on its way from the nose

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ansomia

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the inability to smell

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ageusia

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inability to taste

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Free nerve endings

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sensory receptors that convert physical stimuli into touch, pressure, or pain impulses. Located near the surface of the skin

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Meissners corpuscles

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transduce information about sensitive touch and are found on the hairless regions of the body

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Merkels discs

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transduce information about light to moderate pressure on the skin

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Ruffinis end organs

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are located deep in the skin. They register heavy pressure and movement of joints

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Pacinian corpuscles

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buried deep in the skin. respond to vibration and heavy pressure

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gate control theory of pain

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theory that certain patterns of neural activity can close a gate to keep pain information from travelling to parts of the brain

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endorphins and enkephalins

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belong to a naturally occuring clas of opiates that reduce pin in the nervous system.

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Sound waves

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vibrations of air in the frequency of hearing

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tympanic membrane

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the ear drum

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ossicles

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tiny bones in the ear called maleus, incus, and stapes

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oval window

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a membrane seperating the ossicles and the inner ear, deflection of which causes a wave to form in the cochlea

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cochlea

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fluid filled structure in the inner ear; contains the hair cells

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basilar membrane

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structures in the cochlea where the hair cells are located

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haircells

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sensory receptors that convert sound waves into neural impulses

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tonotopic map

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representation in the auditory cortex of different sound frequencies

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absolute pitch

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the ability to recognize or produce any note on a musical scale

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retina

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a soecialized sheet of nerve cells in the back of the eye containing the sensory receptors for vision

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transduction

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process that involves converting stimulus energy into neural impulses that can be interpreted by th brain

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photoreceptors

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the sensory receptor cells located in the retina

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rods

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photoreceptors most responsive to levels of light and dark

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cones

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photoreceptors responsive to colours

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optic nerve

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the bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries visual information from eye to the brain

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fovea

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centre of the retina containing only cones where vision is most clear

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retinal disparity

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the sight difference in images processed by the retinas of each eye

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convergance

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inward movement of the eyes to view objuects close to oneself

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monocular cues

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visual clues about depth and distance that can be perceived using information from only one eye

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perceptual constancies

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our top down tendency to view objects as unchanging, despite shifts in the enviromental stimuli we receive

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Catherine is a psychologist who works in a transition house for battered women, helping them cope with the trauma they have suffered. In which of the key areas of psychology does Catherine work?

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Clinical and Counceling

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Which of the following is considered to be the creator of empiricism?

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John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.

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What type of culture differentiates itself by emphasizing the needs and goals of the individual over those of the group?

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individualistic

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The research method of introspection was most commonly associated with

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Wundt

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According to the evolutionary perspective, what is the most important factor that contributes to an organism’s success over time?

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behaviour

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Dr. Crann is studying how delayed brain development affects decision-making ability in adolescents. Which area of psychology is Dr. Crann’s area of expertise?

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cognitive neuroscience

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Socrates and Plato were the first to suggest that

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the mind and body are distinct.

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Which of these major perspectives is likely to focus on the impact of early childhood experiences?

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psychodynamic