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139 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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List the primary functions of the respiratory system.
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1. Gaseous exchange
2. Regulation of pH 3. Protection from inhaled pathogens 4. Vocalization |
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How many times in total will the airways branch until they finally reach the alveoli ?
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23 times.
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True or false: The velocity of airflow is higher in the bronchioles than in the trachea.
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False. It is higher in the trachea, this is because the trachea has a smaller cross-sectional area when compared to that of the large number of bronchioles.
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True or false: Alveoli, much like the bronchioles, do not contain cartilage, but do contain smooth muscle.
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False. Alveoli lack smooth muscle and cartilage.
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List the different layers of the blood gas barrier.
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1. Surfactant
2. Alveolar epithelium 3. Fused basement membrane 4. Endothelium |
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True or false: Only certain parts of the respiratory tract is lined with squamous epithelium, like the upper respiratory tract.
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False. The upper respiratory tract is line with respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified columnar epithelium) and only the alveoli are lined with squamous epithelium.
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Which lung capacity can we use to describe the volume of air in a lung whose muscles are completely paralyzed ?
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The functional residual capacity.
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What are the structural differences in conduction and respiratory tissues of the lung ?
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Conduction:
Thick walls Cartilage rings/plates Ciliated epithelium Respiratory: Thin walls No cartilage Large surface area Large blood supply |
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What are the functional differences in the conduction and respiratory tissues of the lung ?
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Conduction:
Heat air Humidify air Filer air Respiratory: Gaseous exchange |
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True or false: Expiration is always a passive process.
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False. Expiration is normally a passive process, but when the minute volume increases above 40L/m it is indicative of forced expiration which is an active process.
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Define: Eupnea.
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Normal breathing.
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Define: Hyperpnea.
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Increased minute volume due to an increase in metabolism.
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Define: Hyperventilation.
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Increased minute volume without an increase in metabolism.
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Define: Hypoventilation.
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A decrease in alveolar ventilation.
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Define: Tachypnea.
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Increased rate of breathing, but decreased depth.
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Define: Dyspnea.
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Difficulty breathing.
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Define: Apnea.
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Cessation of breathing.
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Define: Ventilation.
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It is the movement of air that flows between the lungs and the atmosphere.
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Define: Tidal volume.
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The amount of air that flows in or out of the lungs during a normal respiratory cycle.
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True or false: The tidal volume is only the amount of air that flows in the lungs during expiration.
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False. It is the amount of air that flows in OR out of the lungs during inspiration or expiration.
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Define: Minute volume.
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The total volume of air inspirated/expirated per minute.
Minute V = Tidal volume x Breathing frequency |
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Define: Alveolar ventilation.
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It is the volume of inspirated air that reaches the alveoli per minute.
VA = (VT - VD) x FR |
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True or false: Not all inspirated air reaches the alveoli.
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True.
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Define: Anatomical dead space.
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The volume of air that is present in the conducting airways that do not participate in gaseous exchange.
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Define: Alveolar dead space.
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The volume of air in alveoli, that have lost their perfusion, and no longer participate in gaseous exchange.
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Define: Physiological dead space.
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It is the sum of anatomical and alveolar dead space. Ventilation wasted in terms of gaseous exchange.
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Define: Pressure gradient.
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The difference in pressure.
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During inspiration, which pressure is initially higher:
the alveolar or the atmospheric ? |
The atmospheric pressure.
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Define: Intrapulmonary pressure.
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The pressure inside the lungs.
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Draw a spirometric graph showing the following volumes/capacities:
1. Tidal volume 2. Inspiratory reserve volume 3. Expiratory reserve volume 4. Residual volume 5. Functional Residual Capacity 6. Inspiratory capacity 7. Vital capacity 8. Total lung capacity |
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Define: Transmural pressure.
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The pressure difference across a membrane.
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Define: Transairway pressure.
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Pta = Paw - Ppl
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Define: Transpulmonary pressure.
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PL = PA - Ppl
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Draw a graph showing the alveolar and pleural pressure differences during inspiration and expiration.
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True or false: The transmural pressure is indicative of the distention of certain structures.
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True.
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Define: Elastic recoil.
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The ability to return to its original shape.
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Define: Compliance.
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The ability of a lung to change its volume for a given Ppl. The ease with which a lung can inflate.
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How would you calculate specific compliance ?
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Specific compliance = Cl / FRC
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Draw a pressure-volume graph to illustrate the differences in a large and small value of compliance.
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True or false: The compliance of a lung equals its elasticity.
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False. The compliance of the lung is effected by the elasticity, but it is not equal to it.
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Which factors influence lung compliance ?
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1. Lung elasticity
2. Lung volumes 3. Lung size 4. Surface tension |
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True or false: An increase in compliance is characteristic of a fibrotic lung disease.
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False. A decrease in compliance is characteristic of a fibrotic lung disease.
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Draw a graph showing the differences in the compliance curves for each of the following conditions:
Normal Asthma Emphysema Fibrosis |
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Define: FEV1.
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Forced expiratory volume in one second.
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Define: FVC.
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Forced vital capacity.
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Draw a spirogram showing the differences in the lung volumes for each of the following conditions:
Normal Asthma Emphysema Fibrosis |
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Draw a graph showing the differences in the lung function tests for each of the following conditions:
Normal Asthma Emphysema Fibrosis |
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True or false: The alveoli in the apex of the lung are more distended than in the base, due to gravity.
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False. Alveoli in the base are more distended due to gravity.
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Which part of the lung is more compliant, the apex or the base ? Give a reason for your answer.
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The base. Because the alveoli in the base of the lung are less distended that will fill more easily with air than in the apex.
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True or false: For any volume, the apex of the lung will be less compliant than the base.
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False. For any given volume above the FRC, the apex of the lung will be more compliant than the base of the lung.
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True or false: Compliance is not the same at all lung volumes.
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True. This is the reason for the pressure-volume loop not being linear.
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True or false: The lungs are more compliant at high volumes.
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False. The lungs are more compliant at low volumes.
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What effect does an increase in elastic recoil of the lung have on the FRC ?
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It decreases the FRC.
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What is the main function of surfactant ?
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To decrease surface tension, thus:
Decreasing elastic recoil Increasing compliance Decrease work of breathing Give alveolar stability Decrease interstitial pressure |
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True or false: Surfactant is more concentrated in larger alveoli, when compared to smaller alveoli.
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False. Without surfactant, the pressure in the smaller alveoli would be larger and therefore they would need a larger concentration than the larger alvoeli.
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What is respiratory stress syndrome ?
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Premature babies lack surfactant, this causes the following to:
An increase in elastic recoil An increase in surface tension A decrease in interstitial pressure, which causes oedema |
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What is flow ?
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Flow = Change in P / R
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What is work of breathing ?
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Work of breathing = Change in P / Change in V
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Which two forces counteract the work of breathing ?
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Elastic recoil of lungs,
and airway resistance. |
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List the factors that influence airway resistance.
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Poiseuille's law:
R = ( 8 x l x n) / ( Pi x r4) l = Length of tube n= Viscocity of gas r = Radius of tibe |
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What is the effect of a large lung volume on airway resistance ?
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The larger the lung volume, the larger the airway diameters, thus less airway resistance.
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What is the effect of a small lung volume on airway resistance ?
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A small lung volume causes small airway diameters and therefore an increase in airway resistance.
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What are the reasons for the pulmonary system being a low pressure system ?
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1. The apex of the lungs are the same level as the heart
2. The pulmonary vessels are very compliant |
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What are the functions of the pulmonary circulation ?
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1. Gaseous excahnge
2. Filter 3. Blood reservoir 4. Metabolic |
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What are the differences in the pulmonary and systemic ciruclations ?
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Pulmonary:
Veins - Oxygenated Arteries - Deoxygenated Thin vessel walls Capillary beds Low pressure and low resistance Systemic: Arteries - Oxygenated Veins - Deoxygenated Thick walls Capillary network High pressure |
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True or false: The bronchial circulation is part of the pulmonary circulation.
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False. It is part of the systemic circulation.
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What happens to the pulmonary vascular resistance when the pulmonary arterial pressure increases ?
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When the pressure increases the resistance decreases.
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What are the mechanisms of the changes in pulmonary vascular resistance ?
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1. Capillary recruitment
2. Capillary dilation |
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Draw a graph showing the work of breathing and indicate which parts of the graph represent the work needed to overcome:
Elastic recoil, and airway resistance. |
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Draw a graph showing the relationship between resistance and airway generation.
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Draw a graph showing the relationship between airway resistance and lung volume.
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Draw a graph showing the relationship between work of breathing and respiratory rate.
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What will the effect of an obstructive lung disease have on breath rate and depth ?
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During this condition, patients will have to do more resistive work to breathe. Therefore, they want to decrease resistive work by doing more elastic work. Thus they will have deep breaths at a low rate.
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What will the effect of a restrictive lung disease have on breath rate and depth ?
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During this condition patients will have to do more elastic work. Therefore, to decrease the amount of elastic work they will do more resistive work. Thus they will have a large breath rate but very shallow depth.
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What is the phenomenon called where airways collapse during forced expiration ?
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Dynamic airway compression.
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Draw a graph showing the effect of cardiac output on pulmonary vascular resistance.
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What is the effect of inspiration and expiration (different lung volumes), respectively, on the vascular resistance of alveolar vessels ?
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During inspiration the pulmonary vascular resistance of the alveolar vessels increase because the alveoli are more distended.
During expiration the pulmonary vascular resistance decreases because the alveoli become less distended. |
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What are the effects of inspiration and expiration (different lung volumes), respectively, on the vascular resistance of the extra-alveolar vessels ?
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During expiration the lumens of the extra-alveolar vessels become smaller and thus increase pulmonary vascular resistance.
During inspiration the lumens of the extra-alveolar vessels become larger and thus decrease pulmonary vascular resistance. |
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Draw a graph showing the differences between alveolar and extra-alveolar pulmonary vascular resistance at different lung volumes.
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At which lung volume is the combined pulmonary vascular resistance (of alveolar and extra-alveolar vessels) at its lowest point ?
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The functional residual capacity.
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Draw a graph showing the relationship between alveolar oxygen content and the amount of perfusion to those alveoli.
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What is the phenomenon called where there is a decrease in alveolar blood perfusion due to a decrease in alveolar oxygen content ?
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Hypoxic pulmonary vascoconstriction.
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True or false: Systemic vessels will constrict due to a decrease in oxygen.
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False. Pulmonary vessels will constrict due to a decrease in oxygen content.
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True or false: The movement of fluid from the capillaries into the interstitial space is purely pathological.
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False. It is a normal occurrence, but pathologies can change the amount of fluid moving from the intravascular spaces.
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Where in the lung would you find the 'best' ventilation and perfusion ?
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The base of the lung.
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Where in the lung would you find the higher ventilation perfusion ratio ?
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In the apex of the lung.
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Draw a graph showing the differences in ventilation and perfusion in the different regions of the lung, also add the ventilation perfusion ratio.
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In which part of the lung will the alveoli be more distended ?
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The apical region.
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At which lung volume is the inward elastic recoil of the lungs its greatest ?
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Total lung capacity.
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At which lung volume is the outward elastic recoil of the chest at its greatest ?
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At the residual volume.
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True or false: The partial pressure of oxygen inside the trachea is higher than the atmosphere, due to water vapour.
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False. It is lower due to water vapour.
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What is Boyle's law ?
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The pressure a gas exerts in a container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container.
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What is Henry's law ?
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Amount of gas dissolved in a fluid:
1. Directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas 2. Directly proportional to the solubility of that gas |
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True or false: CO2 is more soluble than oxygen, therefore it moves diffuses slower.
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False. It diffuses faster.
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What is Fick's law ?
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Vgas = (As x D x change in P) / T
Vgas = Volume of gas diffusing per minute As = Surface area D = constant T = Thickness of membrane |
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What is the Diffusion capacity ?
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The amount of gas that diffuses to the pulmonary capillaries per minute for a given partial pressure of that gas in the alvoelus.
Dl = Vgas / change in P Vgas = Volume of gas diffusing per minute |
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True or false: An increase in perfusion, causes in an increase in the movement of gasses across a membrane.
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False. It does not cause an increase in movement of gasses.
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Which two factors influence the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli ?
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1. Abnormal air composition
2. Inadequate alveolar ventilation |
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Draw a graph indicating the relationship between the alveolar pressure and the alveolar ventilation for both CO2 and O2.
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How many oxygen molecules can bind to a single Hb protein ?
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Four.
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True or false: The relaxed state of a Hb molecule has a lower affinity for oxygen.
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False. The taut state has a lower affinity for oxygen.
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Which factors influence the amount of Hb bound to oxygen in the blood ?
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The partial pressure of oxygen in the plasma and the amount of available binding sites (the amount of Hb in the blood).
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Draw an oxygen-haemoglobin equilibration curve (OHEC).
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What is the P50-value ?
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The value at which the partial pressure of oxygen must be in the blood plasma for 50% of the Hb in the blood to be saturated.
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Describe what is meant with a right and left shift of the OHEC curve ?
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Right shift:
Hb's affinity for oxygen is decreased and releases O2 more readily, therefore the P50 value increases. Left shift: Hb's affinity for oxygen is increased and does not release oxygen more readily, therefore the P50 value decreases. |
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What effects will an alkalaemia and an acidaemia have on the OHEC curve, respectively ?
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Acidaemia- Will cause a right shift.
Aklalaemia- Will cause a left shift. |
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Which factors will cause a change in the OHEC curve ?
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The following factors will cause a right shift (the opposite thereof will cause a left shift):
1. Decrease in pH 2. Increase in CO2 3. Increase in temperature 4. An increase in DPG |
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Draw a graph showing the difference that the absence and presence of DPG has on oxygen binding to Hb.
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True or fasle: HbF has a lower affinity for oxygen.
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False. It has a higher affinity for oxygen than normal Hb in the same circumstances, due to a different structure.
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What are the differences between O2:
Content Capacity Saturation |
Content is the amount of O2 in the blood.
Capacity is the maximum potential amount of O2 that can bind to the Hb. Saturation is the content divided by the capacity. |
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Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of CO2 into HCO3- ?
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Carbonic Anhydrase.
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True or false: Peripheral chemoreceptors are only sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen.
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False. They are also sensitive to pH.
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Below which partial pressure should oxygen fall for it to have an effect on peripheral chemoreceptors ?
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60 mmHg.
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True or false: Central chemoreceptors are only sensitive to pH.
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True.
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Draw a diagram illustrating the mechanics of the peripheral chemoreceptors for oxygen.
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Draw a diagram illustrating the mechanics of the central chemoreceptors for ph.
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Draw a diagram illustrating the mechanics of both peripheral and central chemoreceptors for oxygen and pH.
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List the different components of respiratory epithelium, and the functions of each.
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1. Ciliated cylindrical epithelial cells - Move mucus
2. Basal cells - Stem cells replacing other cell types 3. Intermediate cells - Basal cells which are differentiating 4. Goblet cells - Secrete mucus 5. Endocrine cells |
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True or false: Smaller airways only contain squamous cell epithelium.
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False. They contain simple epithelium, which includes squamous cells and cuboidal cells.
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Define: Mucus.
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A secretory product of goblet cells and some multicellular glands.
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Define: Mucous.
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Describes a cell or gland which produces mucus.
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Define: Mucosa.
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It is the epithelium + the lamina propria of a hollow organ.
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True or false: All mucosa produce mucus.
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False. They usually do, but not always.
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What are the short thick hairs at the entrance of the nasal cavity called ?
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Vibrissae.
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What is the underlying connective tissue called under the respiratory epithelium ?
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Lamina propria.
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BALT
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Bronchiole High MAgnification
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Large Bronchi High Magnification
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Low magnification Bronchi
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Small Bronchi High Magnification Special Stain
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Small Bronchi High Magnification
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Trachea High Magnification
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Trachea Low Magnification
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What are the differences between bronchioles and bronchi ?
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No cartilage
No glands No Submucosa and No BALT |
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What kind of epithelium would you expect to find in the bronchioles ?
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Ciliated cuboidal epithelium.
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What is the main function of a clara cell ?
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They produce components of surfactant.
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Define: Lung lobule.
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All the airways which arise from a terminal bronchiole.
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In which structures of the respiratory system would you exclusively find clara cells ?
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The bronchiole.
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True or false: Type 2 pneumocytes can act as stem cells for damaged lung tissue.
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True.
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