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119 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is Physiology?
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Maintaining or moving to a control set point.
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Molecules
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Assembly of atoms major physiological ones are proteins, carbs, lipids, and nucleic acids
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Cells
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Basic Units of life, uses energy has metabolism, removes waste
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Tissues
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Collection of similar cells with same local function, term also used as "Lung Tissue"
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Organs
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Collection of different tissues carries out distinct function in the body
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Systems
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Collection of organs controls major coordinated functions, respiratio, circulation etc..
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Homeostasis
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Maintaining the normal physiological state.
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Internal Environment
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Interstitial fluid (liquid around cells)
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Negative Feedback
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Common--Event X causes a change away from state set. pt. response y causes a return to set pt.
Basis of homeostasis: Ex: blood pressure, Ion concentrations, muscle reflexes |
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Positive Feedback
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Rare but important, event x causes set. pt. (state change) no return to original set pt. example: blood clotting, pregnancy
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Cytosol
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Liquid between nucleus and membrane liquid portion--high protein content, protein clusters, organized enzyme pathways enhance metabolism
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Metabolism
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Thousands of reaction enzymes are protein catalysts structural proteins, energy production, enzymes, storage and use of carbs and lipids
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Ribosomes
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Combination of protein and RNA, free ribsomes make proteins for use in cytosol, few or no modifications after production chaperones help protein folding..(proteins manufactured here)
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Storage
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Glycogen is polymer of glucose in muscle for use during contraction. In liver to maintain blood glucose between. heart prefers fat, can convert fat into glucose. Brain only uses glucose.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Fluid-filled membranous system distributed extensively throughout the cytosol...cytoplasm is outside nucleus inside membrane.
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Rough ER
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proteins are manufactuerd here then sent to the smooth ER, projects outward from smooth ER as stacks of relatively flattened sacs.
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Smooth ER
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is a meshwork of tiny interconnected tubules. produce vesicles and makes membrane transport vesicles, carry new protein to Golgi Apparatus
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Golgi Apparatus
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Amino acids can be changed sugar can be added on once modified, ready for export, secretory vesicles exports
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Exocytosis
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(Calcium Triggers)
docking proteins fit into specific places to go where they need to go. Most proteins mold naturally into proper shape. 10,000 X's more calcium inside cell than outside. |
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Protein Modification
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amino acids can be changed sugar can be added on once modified, ready for export--secretory vesicles export.
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Exocytosis
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(Calcium Triggers) most proteins mold naturally into porper shape 10,000 X more calcium inside cell than outside. docking markers, proteins fit into specific places to go where they need to go.
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Lysosomes
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(digestive enzymes) membrane enclosed sacs containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes, which catalyze hydrolysis reactions. Digestive Tract chops up in minimal pieces.
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Endocytosis
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giving membrane back, phagocytosis (garbage men) white blodd cell surrounds another cell..gets rid of dead cells and bacteria. PUS eww
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Peroxisomes
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hundreds of different enzymes O2, oxidation--different from lysosomes helps detoxify the body, oxygen radicals destroy proteins helps get rid of harmful toxic compounds that enter a cell.TP
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ATP
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Adenosine triphosphate, this is the form of energy the body can use.
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Anaerobic Energy Production--Glycolysis
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During Glycolysis some of the energy from the broken chemical bonds recycles NadH to Nad (they tranfer H onto pyruvic to make lactate) Splits Glucose molecule apart
2 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule Not enough to support the body |
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Mitochondria- Aerobic Energy Production
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2 layers of membrane inner membrane contains Krebs cycle, matrix TCA cycle recycles more NadH
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Citric Acid Cycle
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Consists of a cyclical series of eight seperate biochemical reactions that are directed by the enzymes of the mitochondrial matrix.
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Mitochondrial Inner Membrane
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TCA cycle
Krebs Citric Acid Cycle. |
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Vaults
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three times as large as ribosomes are shaped like octagonal barrels, serve as cellular turcks for transport from nucleus to cytoplasm
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Cytoskeleton
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the complex protein network portion of the cytosol that acts as bone and muscle of the cells.
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Microtubules
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largest of the cytoskeleton, long, hollow tubes, formed by two slightly different variants of globular--shaped tubulin molecules. maintain asymmetric cell shapes and coordinate complex cell movement.
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Cilia--Flagella
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numerous tiny hairlike protrusions, flagella--single long, whiplike appendage
cilia- keeps particles out of airway. |
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Immediate Filaments
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irregular threadlike proteins, help resist mechanical stress.
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Microfilaments
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Intertwined helical chains of actin molecules; microfilaments composed of myosinmolecules also present in muscle cells play a vital role in various cell contractile systems; serve as a mechanical stiffener for microvilli.
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Membrane Structure
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Seperates ICF from IF physical T chemical barrier
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Phospholipids
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Backbone of membranes, soap like
fluidity within membrane and as a whole. |
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Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic
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Hydrophobic- hard to get to membrane fat soluble membrane
Philic outersides H-phils done cross by diffusion except H2O, higher water sol. |
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Cholesterol
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Between lipids, prevents close packing of fatty acids chains, creates fluidity--LDLP--Storage (bad), helps carry fats for consumption (good)...prevents membrane from rupturing.
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Proteins
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mobile or restricted (most)
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Channels
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ions, protein channels span membrane
open?closed (4) *specialized by ion type--K+, Na+, Ca++, Cl-...receptors open channels |
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Enzymes
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catalyze--A--B
some always active, some need receptors. can ship foreign DNA |
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Receptors
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bind to solute--either chemical or ion
some act by physical change binds to an agonist connecto to channel or enzyme? Epinephrine: (adrenaline)- opens up Ca++ channel constricts blood vessels. |
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Docking--Marker Acceptors
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Recognized bind to secretory vesicles, site of exocytosis
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Carriers
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(Revolving) proteins, no Tpase
Alternate open side 1) molecules move w/gradient 2) co-transport w/ion usually Na+ use ion gradient for ESource |
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Cell Adhesions Molecules
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Anchor cells to others or basal lamina
Maintain tissue integrity |
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Carbohydrate--Protein Complexes
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Type 1 DIa, auto immune
ID Self Basis for seperation of cells into tissue during embryonic dev. limit normal tissue growth abnormalities- metastatic cancer. |
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Intercellular Connections
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Proteins + large, 4 types of connections
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CAMs- Cell Adhesion Molecules
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Proteins
Anchor Cells Control Cell Migration |
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Tight Junctions
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*plastic ring of 6 pack, blcok movement between cells, creates tissue sidedness
skin (burns destroy tight junctions, lose fluid) intestines, kidneys selective transport molecules must go through cells retains water |
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Desmosomes
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cellular rivets
hold moving cells together, especially under stress *Skin, heart |
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Gap Junctions
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channels, ion pass, electrical link
passes along elec. signal to activate cell * Heart, GI, Bladder, Uterus * Causes simultaneous activation of a tissue. |
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Diffusion across membranes
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Diriven by electrical or chemical gradients
Simple diffusion, channels and carriers Diffusion goes in all directions-(Net diffusion) Will always go HIGH TO LOW |
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Hydrophobicity
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Fat gases cross easily, fluidity allows 8 micron RBCs to deform through 7 micron capillaries, enhances O2 transport
Membrane is plastered , *Heart Pumps entire supply once/min |
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Size
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O2 is small
H2O can squeeze between phospholipids *Proteins can never get through |
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Fick's Law of Diffusion
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Refer to Study Book
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Ion Channels
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Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl-
can move by elec + chem gradients -Refer to study book for pics |
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When you break blood vessels, protein leaks out to surrounding tissues, and cause swelling
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FUN FACT
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Osmosis
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H2O moves from (low solute) to low (high sol.)
semi permeable membranes allow water to cross but NOTHING else. *Water is drawn out of your blood by others surrounding fluids. |
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Carrier Transport
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Protein Molecules can change shape in membrane and move across molecules
E for transport and may come from conc. gradient or from ATP. * Loss of 2% of H2O =loss of 40% of muscle ability, * Glucose is 1/3 of # of carriers. |
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Specificity
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each carrier transports a specific molecule or type of molecule
some are more specific than others |
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Saturation
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limited number of carriers in each cell
when all carriers are being used, the rate is a max, Tm Limits mediated transport |
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Facilitated Diffusion
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No ATP--move down diff grad.
molecules bind to on eside, carriers reorients, molecules leave on other side more binding on high conc. side high--low |
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Active Transport
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use ATP to move ions against conc. grad. "ion pump"
*low to high AT produces ion grad. Across cell membranes |
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Na-K AT Pase
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Na+ out, K+ in
creates gradients that allow elec signaling orabain blocks the Na-K AT Pase IN EVERY CELL ON EARTH |
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Secondary Active Transport
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doesn't use ATD directly,
2 binding sites=agonist, Na+ E of Na+ grad. (out to in) drives SAT (o transport) (agonistin) or counter transport (agonist out) Na+ transports some glucose + aas in some tissues, other ions drives SAT |
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Membrane Potential- L6
Voltage |
Seperation of change
cells have - charge inside compared to outer IT fluid opposite charges line up along membrane |
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Resting Membrane Potential
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MPis (MV)
Voltage across membrane when cell is not activated determined by open ion channels K+ for rest (open channels)--most some Na+ (few open) |
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Concentration
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(Na+ lower on inside, K+ Higher on inside)
Diff in K+ + Na+ determines size of membrane potential, proteins balance the K+ chargesw on inside of move K+ than Na+ movement diff in intercellular contribue to diff rest. mem. pot. |
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Permeability
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Determined by number of open channels
number of open channels Ka+/Na+- determines ion diffusion |
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Na-K AT Pase
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* Ions are always returned to ATPase
(enzyme) creates gradients and restores them after ions diffuse across the membrane. Ion pump activity |
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Equilibrium Potential
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Limits on K+/Na+
What voltage balances chemical Gradient? Only open channels deternine MP. +60NA+all-------(-70)(most K+, few Na+)-------(-90 K+ all) RESTING NEURON MEMBRANE POTENTIAL (-70) NO CELL ACTUALLY REACHES -90/+60 (only limits) |
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K+ Diffusion at Rest
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K+ channels are open, K+ diff out
Intracellular protein, A- is trapped in cell Na+ channels are mostly closed, little diffusion Ions are constantly diffusing Negative proteins on inside draw some K+ back |
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Pump/Leak Balance
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Balance b/t pump + diff (channel) activity since ions constantly diffuse down their gradient a constant input of ATP is needed to maintain gradient.
IONS ARE CONSTANTLY DIFFUSING. |
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Resting MP Changes
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Membrane potential will change in many cells (nerve, muscle)
MP neg @ rest MP magnitude decreases (goes toward 0) during depolarization MP increases (gets more negative) during HYPERPOLAR. Changes of MP are important |
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MP Changes: Depolarization
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(towards positive)
MP gets less negative caused by K+ closing, Na+ opening MP moves toward Na+ Equilibruim pot. |
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MP Changes: Hyperpolarization
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MP Gets more neg (towards neg)
K+ opening, Na+ closing MP moves toward K+ equil pot. * + 20 IS MOST, -85 IS MOST |
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Graded Potentials
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Triggered by agonists or by physical force
"water in pond" * SIZE IS PROPORTIONAL TO SIZE OF STIMULUS spread to adjacent areas, but decays rapidly over time/distance causes membrane to be more positive receptors, neurons, muscles neurons/muscles> need threshold of A.P. Refer to book for picture |
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L7- Action Potential
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"Spikes"
elec signal, long range, in neurons/muscle activated by graded potential APS do not degrade over time/dist Freq. of AP Speed of muscles only slightly diff. duration of how long channels are open. |
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Voltage-Gated Channels
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Open when memb. reaches particular voltage.
usually -+15-20 MV above rest. potential all v-gated channels open together, causing AP enter inactiv. staqte soon after opening making REFRACTORY PERIOD. |
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Phases of the Action Potential
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REFER TO BOOK FOR PICTURE.
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Phases of AP: Depolarization to Threshold.
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(firing level) -1-
chemical/mechan- gated Na+channels open Na+ enters down gradient t=threshold A++, all v-gated Na+channels open TTX blocks fast v-gated Na+ Channels. |
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Phases of AP: AP SPIKE
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-2-
since all v-gated Na+ channels open together all APs in one neuron are identical Na+ enters, rapid depolarization to +20 mV Doesn't reach Na+ equil pot. because some V-gated K+ channels also open |
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Repolarization
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-3- V-gated Na+ channels close after 1-2 msec
K+ channels still open, K+ leaves, memb. pot. Fails |
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Hyperpolarization
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-4-
Voltage goes below resting because extra K+ channels are still open. Nearer to -90 mV (K+ equil pot.) than Na+ rest |
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Return to Resting Potential
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-5-
extra K+ channels close AP Can't move back because gates close |
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Dendrites
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receive NT
no AP here, only graded potential |
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Cell Body
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Axon Hillock at beginning of axon, high density of V-gated Na+ Channels
AP Starts here |
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Axons
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Carry AP away
Speed of AP variable, Increase with increase diameter and with myelin * AD JUMP BETWEEN N or R |
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Myelin- Nodes of Ranvier
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cells surround axon and wrap layers of membrane
Elec. insulates axon, prevents elc. loss to IF increase Speed NOR- Spares between myelin- completes AP circuit |
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Refractory Period
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After V gated channels lose they are unopenable)
for a time (30-200 msec) no new Ap's at this time limit AP frequency AP only travels in ONE DIRECTION |
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Frequency of Action Potentials
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All APs are identical in a given cell
info is passed by teh frequency, not size of APs more APs create a stronger signal input to the CNS |
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L8- Synaptic Structures
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Neural- Neural Synapses
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Presynaptic Neuron
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end of axon-synaptic knob, terminal button
receive AP down axon, AP opens Ca++ channels |
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Vesicles
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contains NT
increase Ca++ triggers merger with cell membrane NT dumped into (left, diffuses to post-syn membrane) produce graded pot. in next cell. Higher Ca++ out than in exocytosis. |
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Postsynaptic Cell
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has receptors for NT from pre-syn neuron
receptors connected to ion channels when NT binds to recep, channels open NT IS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN CELLS --elec. activity + chemical bridge * CELLS IN BRAIN NEVER TOUCH |
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Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials- EPSPs
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NT binds and Na+ channels open,
Na+ enters > depolarization NT causes dep or hyperpol. one EPSP is not enoug to reach threshold. (112 mV) NT Causes Dep or Hyperpol. |
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Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials-ISPS
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BRAIN IS MOSTLY INHIBITING.
K+ of Cl- channels opened by NT K+ leaves or Cl- enters down their elec. chem gradient Memb potential= more - less likely to reach threshold |
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Grand Postsynaptic Action Potential
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Sum of all EPSPs and IPSPs
reach thres.? yes > five Ap most neurons are inhibited |
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Axon Hillock
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at junction of cell body and axon High D of V-gated Na+ channels
AP STARTS HERE |
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One-Way Conductance
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NT is only released from pre-syn neuron, recept. only on post-syn.
info only goes in one direction |
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Spatial Summation
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EPSPs from different neurons are additive
sum may reach threshold some neurons receive syn. from thousands of other neurons. |
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Temporal Summation
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EPSPs from same neuron close in time are additive> sum to reach threshold
ONE SYNAPSE W/ 2 DEPOLARIZATIONS close. BRAIN NEEDS A SIGNIFICANT AMT IN TIME OF STIMULUS PURPLE BOX-most common nothing happens. |
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Convergence
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(anatomical)
Multiple synapses info a single neuron Anatomical basis for spatial summation (adding up elec. from diff syn) |
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Divergence
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Each axon has many synaptic knobs (terminal buttons)
An AP in one neuron delivers NT to all it's divergent neurons at same time. * Fine Control Ex: light pat or hard pat? |
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L9- Intercellular Communication---
Communication Types |
Communication between cells over short/long distances
combinations of electrical and chemical activity No regrowth of muscles or neurons |
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Paracrines (small)
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EDRF-1st
local released from one cell, a ffects nearby cell nitric oxide-control of blood flow produced by endothelial cells or arterioles *dilation> BP |
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Neurotransmitters
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specific each neuron has only one type of NT variable neural cell length- NTS work locally as released
released by exocytosis-synapse cell to cell * neural to neural muscle, endocrine cells Rapid removal diffusion, digestion, reuptake |
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Endocrine
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released by endocrine tissue (endothelial)
Broad effects>released into blood>everywhere effects depends on target cell receptor |
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Neurohormones
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(2) oxytocin, basopresin
released from neurons into the blood functions as other hormones--receptor dependent intermediates often inactive: androstenedione > givs males more testosterone |
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Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic
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philic>cannot cross membrane
rely on recep. activation >member proteins produce 2nd messengers Phobic-diffuse easily -need transport + molecules in watery environment -steroids, T it, Vit, A & D increase prot. synthesis by activating genes wide spread action many side effects |
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Second Messengers
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made @ made
internal activation by philic hormone (1st mess) only cells w/receptors respond |
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cAMP (ring)
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ATP-cAMP- activate kinases, adds P to molec. kinase cascades amplify signals
individualized effects on diff. cells. Activation: Increase Ca+ 2. Phosphoryl |
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cGMP
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GTP-cGMP activates Kinase
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IP3
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causes release of intracellular
Ca++ stores Ca++ stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum , a structure modifies form ER |
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Nuclear Receptors
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form interphace between hydrophobic hormones and genes.
Determine which genes activated by phobic hormones cells basis for side effects PHILLIC- FAST CHANGE PHOBIC-SLOW CHANGE |
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Gap Junctions depolarize occurs muscles contract in adj. cells by opening Ca++ channels spread elec. act.
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FACT
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Calcium
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released from SR by IP3
BINDS TO/ALTERS PROTEIN ACTIVITY. CELL TO CELL Ca++ signal--coord. cilia waves, exocytosis |
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G Proteins
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Timing proteins
Bind GTP-and increase activity until GTP>GDD regulate vesicle movement, cytoskeleton, growth, vision and 2nd messenger. |