Physiology, Endocrinology.

Front 1

Describe hemocrine or endocrine.

Back 1

Hormones are secreted to the blood stream and then they get to the target cell.

Front 2

Describe Autocrine.

Back 2

The cell secretes hormones which will affect the cell itself.

Front 3

What is paracrine or neurocrine?

Back 3

One cell releases hormones that affect the cell next to it. If these cells are neuronal, it is called neurocrine.

Front 4

What is solinocrine?

Back 4

Hormones are released straight to the lumen.

Front 5

What are 3 types of functions of hormones?

Back 5

- Single hormone, single function is rare.
- Single hormone, multiple actions (e.g. thyroid hormone on bone turnover, enzyme synthesis, etc.).
- Multiple hormones, single function (e.g. regulation of lactation by prolactin, sex steroids, etc.)

Front 6

How high is the concentrations of hormones in ECF and what effect does it have?

Back 6

It is very low, so there is need for unique recognition by receptors at target tissue.

Front 7

Name possible positions of receptors on the target cells.

Back 7

On the cell surface, cytosolic or in the nucleus.

Front 8

How can hormones circulate around the body?

Back 8

Free (water soluble) or bind to proteins (not water soluble).

Front 9

Name three types of hormones.

Back 9

- Peptide hormones,
- Steroid hormones.
- Amino acids derivatives.

Front 10

What are peptide hormones?

Back 10

Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. They are water soluble, but cannot move through membranes, they need a receptor to get in the cell. Can be very large, therefore have 3D structure.

Front 11

How amino acid derivatives move through the membranes of cells?

Back 11

The are lipophilic, so they just move through.

Front 12

Shortly describe steroid hormones.

Back 12

They are all derived from cholesterol. Insoluble in water, so they need to bind to proteins to circulate in the system. Lipophilic, like lipids - can go through the PM.

Front 13

Describe what is happening in the picture following numbers.

Back 13

Peptide hormone synthesis.

Front 14

Which group of hormones have very specific function to them on being stored in secretory vesicle.

Back 14

Peptide hormones.

Front 15

During synthesis of peptide hormones where does prohormone get activated in the cell?

Back 15

In Golgi complex.

Front 16

What is required for peptide hormones to go through the PM?

Back 16

Receptors on the surface of the cell.

Front 17

Where are receptors for steroid hormones situated?

Back 17

In cytoplasm or nucleus.

Front 18

Where are receptors for amino acid derived hormones situated in the cell?

Back 18

Only in nucleus.

Front 19

How does steroid hormones work?

Back 19

Steroid diffuses into the cell,
binds to the receptor in cytosol or in nucleus,
whole complex binds to promoter element and initiate/activate the expression of gene to make hormones.

Front 20

How does steroid hormones work?

Back 20

Steroid diffuses into the cell,
binds to the receptor in cytosol or in nucleus,
whole complex binds to promoter element and initiate/activate the expression of gene to make hormones.

Front 21

Fill in the table of comparison of peptide and steroid hormones.

Back 21

Front 22

Why peptide hormones' response time is so much smaller than steroid hormones?

Back 22

Because they are stored in the vesicles and are released form there fast.

Front 23

How is release of hormones regulated?

Back 23

By feedback mechanisms,
Tropic hormones (e.g. thyroid releasing hormone),
Neuronal control (e.g. adrenaline).

Front 24

Is concentration of hormones always constant?

Back 24

No, it may vary, e.g. growth hormone at night is secreted at higher rates that during day time.

Front 25

Explain the feedback mechanims on this example:
beta cells ->insulin -> liver -> glucose -> brain.

Back 25

Substances being produced as a result, feedback on producing cells to stop production of the original hormone. Beta cells sense the glucose and insulin is not being produced any more.

Front 26

What is hypertrophy?

Back 26

Increase in cell size.

Front 27

What is the name of increase in cell number?

Back 27

Hyperplasia.

Front 28

What are non-tropic hormones?

Back 28

Non-tropic hormones are hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects. This differs from the tropic hormones which act on another endocrine gland.

Front 29

What are tropic hormones?

Back 29

Tropic hormones are hormones which have other endocrine glands as their target, not on a target cells directly.

Front 30

Label.

Back 30

Front 31

What is the purpose of endocrine cells of the pituitary?

Back 31

they react to hormones that are released from hypothalamus and release its own hormone in response to it. There are very specific cells to each hormone.

Front 32

What is happening in the posterior lobe of pituitary gland?

Back 32

Hormones secreted by hypothalamus are transported straight to blood system, without intermediate transporter.

Front 33

What is happening in the anterior lobe of pituitary gland?

Back 33

Hormones secreted by hypothalamus enter the blood capillaries that carry them to the anterior lobe, there they react onto endocrine cells and new hormones are secreted to the blood system to affect the target tissue. Different hormones of hypothalamus may have stimulating or inhibiting effect on pituitary gland.

Front 34

Name the examples of hormones of pituitary gland.

Back 34

Oxytocin, vasopressin.

Front 35

What is the function of posterior pituitary hormone oxytocin?

Back 35

It is important during labour to cause contractions of uterus. During lactation essential for milk let-down.

Front 36

What are the stimuli for oxytocin release from posterior pituitory gland during lactation?

Back 36

Suckling.

Front 37

What is the major function of vasopressin (ADH)?

Back 37

Regulates water permeability of the distal tubules in kidney.

Front 38

Where is vasopressin secreted?

Back 38

In posterior pituitary.

Front 39

What stimulates secretion of vasopresin from posterior pituitory gland?

Back 39

Increased osmolarity and reduction in ECF volume.

Front 40

What are the functions of Ca in the body?

Back 40

It is intracellular second messenger and it is an essential mineral component of the skeleton and teeth.
It also plays central role in muscular contraction, blood coagulation, enzyme activity, hormone secretion, etc.

Front 41

Describe Ca metabolism in the body (where it is stored, etc.)

Back 41

99% is stored in bone.
Most of the rest is intracellular in endoplasmic reticulum of cells. ECF contains 0.1% of Ca.

Front 42

What are three important tissues for Ca homeostasis?

Back 42

Kidney (reabsorbes 98% of filtered Ca), gut (absorbs Ca from diet) and bone (storage).

Front 43

Which gland releases calcotonin important in Ca homeostasis?

Back 43

Thyroid gland.

Front 44

What is the effect of calcitonin?

Back 44

It reduces Ca++ uptake in kidneys; Stimulates Ca++ deposition in bones.

Front 45

Which gland releases parathyroid hormone?

Back 45

Parathyroid gland.

Front 46

What is the effect of parothyroid (PTH) hormone?

Back 46

Primary target cells are bone and kidney.
- Elevate blood concentrations of Ca.
- Increase tubular reabsorption of Ca in the kidney.
- Increase Ca release from osteoblasts (A cell that makes bone).
- Accelerate the formation of the principal active vitamin D metabolite in tubule epithelial cells in the kidney (that increases Ca intake in intestines).

Front 47

How many parathyroid glands are there on top of thyroid gland?

Back 47

Four.

Front 48

What does Ca++ act on PTH secretion?

Back 48

If the ECF is high with Ca++, Ca binds to Ca receptors and inhibits PTH secretion.
If ECF Ca++ is low, it does not bind to receptors in PM and no inhibition of PTH secretion is happening, so PTH is secreted from storage granules.

Front 49

Which cells secrete calcitonin from the thyroid gland?

Back 49

Parafollicular cells - C cells.

Front 50

Name two main types of cells that are present in thyroid gland.

Back 50

Follicular cells and C cells.

Front 51

Which hormone can prevent hypercalcemia?

Back 51

Calcitonin.

Front 52

What are two primary target tissues for calcitonin?

Back 52

Bone and kidney.

Front 53

Which hormones protect the body from hypo/hypercalcemia?

Back 53

Hypocalcemia - PTH; hypercalcemia - calcitonin.

Front 54

IN production of active vitamin D what is the action of PTH?

Back 54

In the kidney there is an enzyme that gets activated only by PTH - renal 1alpha-hydroxylase. Without this enzyme active vitamin D cannot be synthesised.

Front 55

What is the function of calcitriol?

Back 55

It protects bone during Ca deficiency in the body, increases Ca absorption from intestine. If Ca is low, bone releases Ca => bone loss; calcitriol prevents that.

Front 56

What is the ideal level of glucose in the blood?

Back 56

5.5 mmol/l.

Front 57

What are two distinct phases of glucose metabolism?

Back 57

Anabolic phase (too much glucose - storage) and Catabolic phase (too little glucose - glucose mobilisation).

Front 58

What is the effect of glucagon in 'one' word.

Back 58

It mobilizes glucose.

Front 59

What is the function of insulin?

Back 59

Insulin 'stores' glucose.

Front 60

Which hormones does pancreas secrete?

Back 60

Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin.

Front 61

Which cells of pancreas secrete glucagon, insulin and somatostatin (3 different cells).

Back 61

Alpha cells - glucagon,
beta cells - insulin,
delta cells - somatostatin.

Front 62

What are three main insulin target tissues?

Back 62

Muscles, liver, adipose tissue.

Front 63

What are 4 stimulators of insulin secretion?

Back 63

- Parasympathetic NS
- Glusose
- Amino acids
- GI hormones (e.g. GIP).

Front 64

What inhibits insulin secretion?

Back 64

Sympathetic NS.

Front 65

How does insulin act in liver?

Back 65

Insulin binds to receptors and by stimulating or inhibiting key enzymes affects these processes:
-Decr. glucose output;
-Decr. gluconeogenesis (generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids);
-Incr.Glycogenesis (process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage);
-Incr.glycolysis (breakdown of glucose to ATP);
-Incr. lipogenesis (storage of fatty acids, energy can be efficiently stored in the form of fats);
-Incr. proteogenesis.

Front 66

What is the effect of insulin in muscles?

Back 66

- Decr. glucose output;
- Incr.glucose uptake;
- Incr. Glycolysis;
- Incr. Glycogenesis;
- Incr.amino acid uptake;
- Incr. proteogenesis.

Front 67

What is the action of insulin in adipocyte?

Back 67

- Incr. synthesis of fatty acids;
- Incr. lipogenesis;
- Incr. glycolysis;
- Incr. glucose uptake;
- Decr. glucose output.

Front 68

What is the effect of insulin on concentrations of diff. substances in the blood?

Back 68

It decreases levels of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids.

Front 69

These are effects of what physiological state?

Back 69

Front 70

Which physiological condition has these effects?

Back 70

Front 71

Increased metabolic rate appears in case of hyper- or hypothyroidism?

Back 71

Hyperthyroidism.

Front 72

What are the causes for hypothiroidism?

Back 72

Iodine deficiency, autoimmune destruction of thyroid cells (Hashimoto's desease).

Front 73

What are 4 functions of adrenal cortex?

Back 73

• Corticosteroids
• regulation of metabolic processes
• regulation of Na+ and K+ blood levels
• control of volume of extracellular fluid.

Front 74

How fast is the work of adrenal cortex?

Back 74

Not so fast: over minutes, days and months.

Front 75

How fast is work of adrenal medulla?

Back 75

Fast: within seconds to minutes.

Front 76

What are the three functions of adrenal medulla?

Back 76

• Adrenaline and noradrenaline secretion (epinephrine and norepinephrine);
• responsiveness to stressors (fight or flight);
• regulation of metabolic processes.

Front 77

Name three structural zona in adrenal cortex.

Back 77

Zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis.

Front 78

Which gland secretes aldosterone and cortisol?

Back 78

Adrenal cortex.

Front 79

Which gland secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine?

Back 79

Adrenal medulla.

Front 80

Since steroid hormones are never stored in cells, which substance is stored for use in the moment when there is a need to generate hormones?

Back 80

Cholesterol (because all steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol.

Front 81

Which three types of hormones are produced by adrenal cortex?

Back 81

Steroid hormones:
- Glucocorticoids (cortisol and corticosterone)
- mineralocirticoids (aldosterone)
- androgens and estrogens.

Front 82

From what substance is new cholesterol synthesised in cortical cells?

Back 82

Acetate.

Front 83

How is cholesterol transported in the body?

Back 83

It is insoluble in water, so it is transported with LDL.

Front 84

What are 4 physiological effects of glucocorticoids (cortisol)?

Back 84

• ‘Permissive’
• Carbohydrate Metabolism (protect from hypoglycemia during stress)
- stimulation of gluconeogenesis
- inhibit effects of insulin
• Protein Metabolism
- stimulate catabolism of proteins, ie proteolysis
• Fat Metabolism
- during stress/starvation, shift metabolism from glucose to fat.

Front 85

What's the effect of glucocorticoids (cortisol) on musculoskeletal system?

Back 85

• Catabolic effect on muscle protein;
• loss of bone mas.

Front 86

What's the effect of glucocorticoids (cortisol) on skin and connective tissue?

Back 86

Thinning of skin (subcutaneous vessels visible, easy bruising).

Front 87

What's the effect of glucocorticoids (cortisol) on Renal system?

Back 87

Retention of salt and hypertension.

Front 88

What's the effect of glucocorticoids (cortisol) on cardiovascular system?

Back 88

• Increased force of contraction;
• increased rate of contraction.

Front 89

What's the effect of glucocorticoids (cortisol) on Hematopoetic and Immune system?

Back 89

Aanti-inflammatory and immuno-supressive.

Front 90

Give one example of minetalocortocoids.

Back 90

Aldosterone.

Front 91

What are the most important stimuli for mineralocorticoid secretion?

Back 91

Changes in electrolyte
levels and water balance.

Front 92

What is the main target tissue of mineralocorticoids?

Back 92

Major target is epithelial cells of the collecting tubules of the kidney, where they activate Na+-K+-pumps.

Front 93

What is the name of overproduction of cortisol?

Back 93

Hypercorticism (Cushing’s Disease).

Front 94

Upper body obesity, rounded face, increased fat around neck, slenderextremeties, fragile/thin skin, weak bones, hyperglycemia - these all are the symptoms of which desease?

Back 94

Hypercorticism (Cushing’s Disease).

Front 95

Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s Disease) - is the dysfunction of which gland?

Back 95

Adrenal cortex.

Front 96

What results from Hyperfunction of the Adrenal Medulla?

Back 96

Pheochromocytomas: tumors arising from chromaffin cells;
Secrete large quantities of catecholamines in an unregulated fashion;
Elevated blood pressure;
Increased heart rate ;
Tremor;
Sweating.