Phys Test 2 Reading

Front 1

What mechanisms allow proteins and other molecules transported through the axon to move at faster raters than what could be achieved by simple diffusion? Pg. 162

Back 1

Proteins and other molecules are transported through the axon at faster rates by two different mechanisms:
Axoplasmic Flow: the slower of the two, results from rhythmic waves of contraction that push the cytoplasm from the axon hillock to the nerve endings.
Axonal Transport: employs microtubules and is more rapid and more selective. Occurs from the cell body to the axon and dendrites.

Front 2

Compare and contrast the functional classification of neurons with the structural classification of neurons (make sure you know all types.). Pg 163-4

Back 2

Sensory or Afferent Neurons: Conduct impulses from the sensory receptors into the CNS (Central Nervous System).
Motor or Efferent Neurons: Conduct impulses out of the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands).
Association Neurons or Inter-neurons: Are located entirely within the CNS and sere the associates or integrative, functions of the nervous system.
Somatic Motor Neurons: Are responsible for both reflex and voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Motor Neurons: Innervate (send axons to) the involuntary effectors – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands.
Two subdivisions of autonomic neurons: sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Pseudounipolar Neurons: Have a single short process that branches like a “T” to form a pair of longer processes.
Bipolar Neurons: have two process, one at either end, as found in the retina of the eye.
Multipolar Neurons: The most common type, have several dendrites and one axon extending from the cell body. I.E., motor neurons.

Front 3

What is apoptosis? Pg.167

Back 3

Cell suicide in which the cells show characteristic histological changes. Can be a programmed or physiological response from injury.

Extrinsic pathway: death ligands bind to receptor proteins on the plasma membrane called death receptors. Intrinsic pathway apoptosis occurs in response to intracellular signals.

Both pathways result in the activation of a group of previously inactive cytoplasmic enzymes know as caspases or executioners of the cell that leads to fragmentation of the DNA.

Front 4

What prevents regeneration of CNS axons? Pg. 166

Back 4

Glycoproteins, associated with the myelin sheaths of CNS axons inhibit the growth of a severed axon by binding to a receptor (called the Nogo receptor) on the axon. Schwann cells in the PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) also product myelin proteins that can inhibit axon regeneration.

Front 5

What is the blood brain barrier? What structural components of the barrier restrict paracellular movement? How does this barrier present difficulties in disease treatment? Pg. 169

Back 5

Capillaries in the brain do not have pores between adjacent endothelial cells and are joined together with tight junctions.

The brain cannot obtain molecules from blood plasma.

Molecules in the brain must be moved through the endothelial cells by diffusion and active transport, as well as endocytosis and exocytosis. This feature imposes a very selective brain-blood barrier.

Structural components of the barrier-tight junctions between endothelial brain cells capillaries, restricts the paracellular movement of molecules between eptithelial cells requiring the molecules to instead pass through the epithelial cells.

The blood-brain barrier presents difficulties in the chemotherapy of brain diseases because drugs that could enter other organs may not be able to enter the brain. Some antibiotics cannot cross the barrier.

Front 6

What are local anesthetics and how do they work? Pg. 173

Back 6

They block the conduction of action potentials in sensory axons. By reversibly binding to the specific sites within the voltage-gated Na+ channels, reducting the ability of membrane depolarization to produce actionpotentials.

Cocaine was the first local anesthetic to be used but was very toxic. Procaine was the first synthetic.

Front 7

Compare and contrast flaccid paralysis and spastic paralysis. Pg. 181

Back 7

Flaccid Paralysis: Where muscles are unable to contract. Botulinum toxin destroys members of the SNARE comp[lex of proteins needs for exocytosis of the neurotransmitter Ach, which stimulates muscle contraction.

Spastic Paralysis: Where the muscles are unable to relax. Tetanus toxin blocks inhibitory synapses in the CNS and does not allow the muscles to relax.

Front 8

What is acetylcholinesterase, where is it located, and how does it work? Pg. 162, 186

Back 8

Acetylcholinesterase (ACh) binds to its receptor, it directly or indirectly cause the opening of chemically regulated gates. This produces a depolarization is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).

ACh is used as excitatory neurotransmitter by some neurons in the CNS and by somatic motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction.

At autonomic nerve endings, ACh may be excitatory and inhibitory depending on the organ involved.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the bond between ACh and its receptor protein and exists for on a brief instant.

Front 9

above continued

Back 9

ACHe is present on the postsynaptic membrane or immediately outside the membrane with its active site facing the synaptic cleft.

It hydrolyzes acetycholine into acetate and choline, which can then reenter the presynaptic axon terminals and be resynthesized into achetylcholine (ACh).

Nerve gas exerts is effects by inhibiting AChE in skeletal muscles. Since ACh is not degraded, it can continue to combine with receptor proteins and can continue to stimulate the postsynaptic cell, leading to spastic paralysis.

Front 10

What is the most abundant neuropeptide in the brain? What are physiological effects associated with this neuropeptide? Pg. 193-195

Back 10

Neuropeptides are polypeptides of various sizes found in the synapses of the brain. They are believed to function as neurotransmitters.

Neuropeptide Y is the most abundant neuropeptide in the brain. Roles include: responses to stress, regulation of circadian rhythms, and control of the cardiovascular system.

Inhibits the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate in the hippocampus. Excessive release can cause convulsions and seizures.

Powerful stimulator of appetite.

Front 11

What is synaptic plasticity? How does the term relate to synaptic facilitation and synaptic depression?

Back 11

Synaptic plasticity refers to the strength of a synaptic transmission that can be varied.

Repeated us of a particular synaptic pathway can enhance the strength (Synaptic Facilitation) of the synaptic transmission at that synapse or it can decrease (Synaptic Depression) the strength of the transmission.

Front 12

We cannot always draw a sharp distinction between the nervous system and the endocrine system? Why? Pg. 313

Back 12

Specialized neurons in the hypothalamus, secrete chemical messengers into the blood rather than into a narrow synaptic cleft called a neurohormone. Norepinephrine is secreted both as a neurotransmitter and a hormone.

Front 13

hat are the four chemical classes of hormones? Pg. 312 - 314

Back 13

Steroids: Lipids from cholesterol. Testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, and cortisol. Not Water Soluble.
Amines: Amino acids tyrosine & tryptophan. Water Soluble.
Polypepetides: Proteins. Water Soluble.
Glycoproteins: Protein bound to one or more carbohydrate groups. Water Soluable.

Front 14

What impacts the responsiveness of a target tissue to a particular hormone? Pg. 312

Back 14

The blood carries the hormones to target cells that contain specific receptor proteins for the hormones that respond to them.

Front 15

Compare and contrast synergistic, permissive and antagonistic effects. Pg. 316

Back 15

Synergistic: two or more hormones work together to produce a similar effect. Can be additive or complementary.
Permissive: Enhances the responsiveness of a target organ to a second hormone. Increases the activity of a second hormone.
Antagonistic: One hormone antagonizes the effect of another. Has a negative or opposite effect.

Front 16

Explain why hormones do not typically accumulate in our blood. Make sure the definition of half-life is integrated into your answer. Pg. 317

Back 16

Rapidly removed by target organs and the liver. The half life of most hormones is the time required for the plasma concentration of a given amount of hormone to be reduced by half.

Hormones removed from the blood by the liver are converted into less active products.

Front 17

Compare and contrast up regulation and down regulation. Pg. 318

Back 17

Downregulation: Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of polypeptide hormones desensitizes target cells. Consistent exposure produces less target tissue response. Decreasing the number of receptor proteins in target cells.

Most hormone secretions are pulsatile rather than continuous.

Upregulation: Small amounts of gonadtropin-releasing hormone (GnRF) secreted by the hypothalamus increases the sensitivity of pituitary cells to further GnRH stimulation. Priming the receptors of receptor proteins for the hormone being primed.

Front 18

A.) What does the location of a hormone’s receptor proteins in its target cell depend on?

Back 18

The lipophilic steroid and thyroid hormones do not travel dissolved in the aqueous portion of the plasma. They are transported to their target cells attached to plasma carrier proteins. These proteins dissociate from the carrier protein in the blood to pass through the lipid component of the plasma membrane.

Front 19

Where are lipophillic hormone receptor proteins located?

Back 19

Inside the cell membrane and are used to transport hormones into the cell nucleus to bind with DNA.

Front 20

Where are water-soluble hormone receptor proteins located?

Back 20

Water soluble hormones cannot pass thru the plasma membrane, their receptors are located on the outer surface of the membrane. Require activation of second messengers within the cell for message transduction across the membrane.

Front 21

Which group relies on activation of second messengers within the target cell? E.) Why? Pg. 319

Back 21

Water soluble hormones (catecholamines, polypeptides, glycoproteins).
Because the hormones in “D” cannot cross the hydrophobic cellular membrane and must transmit their signal thru transduction.

Front 22

What are the “second messengers” in the three second-messenger systems discussed in your text? Pg. 321-322

Back 22

Hormones like polypeptide, glycoprotein’s cannot pass thru the lipid bi-layer of target cell membranes. They exert their effects by not entering the cell. Hormones must be mediated by other molecules in the cell. The messengers with intracellular mediators, the hormones can be second messengers.

Second messengers are members of the signal transduction mechanism because extra cellular signals the hormones are transuded into intracellular messengers.

Front 23

Three second messenger systems:

Back 23

Adenylate cyclase
Phospholipase C
Tyrosine kinase

Front 24

Where are pituitary hormones produced? Pg. 327-329

Back 24

The pituitary gland is located on the inferior aspect of the brain. It is divided into an anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).

Front 25

Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are called trophic hormones. They include:

Back 25

Growth Hormone (GH) Promotes movement of amino acids into cells and formation of these acids into proteins.
Thryoid stimulating Hormone (TSH – thyrotropin) TSH stimulates the throid gland to produce and secrete throxine T4 and triiodothronine T3.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH – corticotrophin). ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete the glucocorticoids such as hydrocortisone.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH – folliculotropin) Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and sperm cells.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH – luteotropin) This and FSH collectively called gonadotropic hormones.
Prolactin (PRL) – M/F’s M reproductive system. F mammary glands.

Front 26

Posterior pituitary releases two hormones, both produced in the hypothalamus

Back 26

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) it’s stimulation of water retention by the kidneys, so less water is excreted in the urine.
Oxytocin – F: stimulates contractions of the uterus in labor. M – measurable during a big “O” but not much else. LMFAO! that’s funny right there

Front 27

Know the definitions and function of the pituitary hormones. Pg. 328

Back 27

ACTH – adrenal cortex, stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids.
TSH – Thyroid gland, stimulates thyroid hormones.
GH – Most tissues, protein synthesis and growth, lipolysis and increased blood glucose.
PRL – Mammary gland, milk production.
LH – Gonads, stimulates sex hormone, contractions, ovulation, testosterone.

Front 28

Compare and contrast the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

Back 28

Adrenal cortex – secretes steroid hormones called cortico steroids or corticoids. Three functions:
Mineralocorticoids – regulate Na+ & K+ balance.
Glucocorticoids – reulated the metabolism of glucose and other organic molecules.
Sex steroids – supplement the steroids secreted by the gonads.


Derived from the same precursor, cholesterol.

Aldosterone is the most potent mineralocorticoid. Cause the kidneys to retain Na+ and excrete K+ in urine. Increase blood volume and pressure andelectrolyte balance.

Front 29

Compare and contrast the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

Back 29

Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the predominate glucocorticoid in humans. Stimulated by ACTH. They stimulate gluconeogenesis (production of glucose from amino acids and lactic acid). Inhibit glucose utilization, promote lipolysis (breakdown of fat).

Adrenal Medulla – Cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine at a ration of 4:1. Cause the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system hormonal effect to last app. 10 times longer. Increase cardiac output, heart rate, dilate coronary blood vessels, increase mental alertness, increase respiration rate and elevate metabolic rate.

Front 30

What is GAS and what are the three stages? Pg. 336

Back 30

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Stress!
Alarm reaction, when the adrenal glands are activated.
Stage of resistance, in which readjustment occurs.
If readjustment is not complete, the stage of exhaustion, can lead to sickness and death.

Front 31

What are T3 and T4? How are they similar and how are they different?

Pgs. 320,321, 338, 339

Back 31

Needed for proper growth and development. Primarily responsible for determining the basal metabolic rate (BMR).

Thyroxine (T4) - major hormone secreted by the thyroid gland (thyroxine). Travels in the blood attached to carrier proteins (TGB). Carriers have a higher affinity for T4 than T3.

Triiodothyronine (T3) - about 10 X more in blood plasma. Only T3 can enter target cells.

Front 32

What are pancreatic islets? Pg. 341-342

Back 32

Alpha Cells: secrete glucagon. Acts antagonistically to insulin. Stimulates gluconeogenesis and allows the liver to secrete glucose into the blood.

Beta Cells: Secrete insulin. Regulates plasma glucose concentration.
Twice as many beta cells as alpha cells.

Front 33

What is the difference between an autocrine regulator and a paracine regulator?

Back 33

Regulatory molecules produced by different organs and active within that organ.

Autocrine Regulator: Act on the same cell type that produces them.

Paracine Regulator: Produced within one tissue and regulate a different tissue of the same organ.

Front 34

What do the terms insertion and origin refer to? Pg. 356

Back 34

Insertion – The more movable bony attachment of the muscle. Inserted on a bone/other muscle.
Origin – (is pulled towards) The less moveable attachment. Muscle is pulled from the origin.

Front 35

Summerize skeletal muscle actions.

Back 35

?

Front 36

What is the innervations ration? Pg. 359

Back 36

Motor neuron: muscles fiber of an average motor unit is one neuron per 23 muscle fibers.

Front 37

What is recruitment of motor neurons? Pg. 360

Back 37

When greater strength of motor units are required, larger and larger motors units are activated to perform work.

Front 38

What is treppe? Pg. 371

Back 38

Also known as the staircase effect. When the voltage of electrical shocks is delivered to an isolated muscle in vitro, increase from zero to a max value where all muscles fibers are stimulated. This demonstrates the graded nature of the muscle contraction. If a series of electrical shocks at this maximum voltage is given to a fresh muscle so that each shock produces a separate twitch, each of the twitches will be successfully stronger up to a higher maximum.

Front 39

What does the force velocity curve illustrate? Pg. 371

Back 39

The force velocity curve is a graph that illustrates the inverse relationship between the force opposing muscle contract and the velocity of muscle shortening.

Front 40

Compare and contrast isotonic and isometric contractions. Pg. 371

Back 40

Isotonic – The tension produced by the shortening muscle is greater than the force at each value causing the muscle to shorten; under these controlled conditions, the contraction strength is constant at each load.
Surpases the load = muscle contraction/work.
Isometric – When the force opposing contraction, load, becomes sufficiently great the muscle is unable to shorten when it exerts a given tension, thus it’s velocity of shortening is zero thus muscle tension does not cause muscle shortening.
Does not surpass the load. No work is done.

Front 41

The strength of a muscles contraction is influenced by?

Back 41

Number of fibers within the muscle
Frequency of stimulation
Thickness of the fiber
Initial length of the muscle fiber at rest.

Front 42

Compare and contrast slow and fast twitch fibers. Pg. 376

Back 42

Slow Twitch – Type I Fibers. Resistant to fatigue, high oxidative capacity for aerobic respiration, rich capillary supply, numerous mitochondria and aerobic respitory enzymes.
Fast twitch – Adapted to metabolize anaerobilly by a large store of glycogen, high concentration of glycolytic enzymes.

Front 43

What is myostatin and how does it impact satellite cells? Pg. 379

Back 43

Recently discovered paracine regulator and skeletal muscle that able to inhibit satellite cell function and muscle growth.

Front 44

How does excitation contraction coupling in smooth muscles differ from that of skeletal muscles? Pg. 389

Back 44

The sarcoplasmic reticulum of smooth muscles is less developed than that of skeletal muscles.

Front 45

Know and understand the three broad areas that characterize the functions
of the circulatory system.

Back 45

Transportation: All of the substances essential for cellular metabolism are
transported by the circulatory system:
A. Respiratory: Red blood cells transport oxygen to the cells. In the lungs,
oxygen from the inhaled air attaches to hemoglobin molecules with the
erythrocytes and is transport to the cells for aerobic respiration.
Carbon dioxide produced by cell respiration is carried by the blood is carried
by the blood to the lungs for elimination in the exhaled air.
B. Nutritive: the digestive system is responsible for the mechanical and chemical
breakdown of food so that it can be absorbed through the intestinal wall into
the blood and lymphatic vessels. The blood then carries these absorbed
products of digestion through the liver to the cells of the body.
C. Excretory: Metabolic wastes, excess water and ions, and other molecules not
needed by the body are carried by the blood to the kidneys and excreted in
the urine.

Front 46

Know and understand the three broad areas that characterize the functions
of the circulatory system.

Back 46

Regulation: the circulatory system contributes to both hormonal and temperature
regulation.
A. Hormonal: the blood carries hormones from their site of origin to distant target
tissues, where they perform a variety of regulatory functions.
B. Temperature: Temperature regulation is aided by the diversion of blood
from deeper to more superficial cutaneous vessels or vice versa. When the
ambient temperature is high, diversion of blood from deep to superficial
vessels helps cool the body, and when the ambient temperature is low, the
diversion of blood from superficial to deeper vessels helps keep the body
warm.

Front 47

Know and understand the three broad areas that characterize the functions
of the circulatory system.

Back 47

Protection: The circulatory system protects against blood loss from injury and
against pathogens, including foreign microbes and toxins introduced into the
body.
A. Clotting: the clotting mechanism protects against blood loss when vessels are
damaged.
B. Immune: the immune function of the blood is performed by the leukocytes
(white blood cells) that portect against many disease-causing agents.
(Pathogens)

Front 48

What are the plasma proteins? Where are they produced and what are their
functions? Pg. 404

Back 48

Represent 7% – 9% of the plasma. Three types of protein are:
1. Albumins: account for the most (60% - 80%) of the plasma proteins and are
the smallest in size. Product by the live and provide the osmotic pressure
needed to draw water from the surround tissue fluid into the capillaries.
2. Globulins: Grouped into three subtypes: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Globulins.
The Alpha and Beta globulins are produced by the liver and function in
transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins. Gamma Globulins are antibodies
produced by lymphocytes and function in immunity.
3. Fibrinogen: account for only 4% of the total plasma proteins, is important in
clotting, produced in the liver.

Front 49

How many red blood cells are produced by bone marrow each day? Pg. 404

Back 49

Bone marrow produces about 500 billion red blood cells per day

Front 50

What is hematopoiesis? Pg. 408

Back 50

Hematopoiesis: the process of constantly forming red blood cells.

Front 51

What are antigens? Pg. 408

Back 51

A molecule able to induce the production of antibodies and to react in a specific
manner with antibodies.

Front 52

What is the specificity of antibodies for antigens analogous to? Pg. 408

Back 52

The specificity of antibodies for antigens is analogous to the specificity of
enzymes for their substrates and of receptor proteins for neurotranmsitters and
hormones.

Front 53

Explain how vasoconstriction, vasodilation and precapillary sphincters
impact the amount of blood flowing through capillary beds. Pg. 429

Back 53

Vasoconstriction: Decreases blood flow by contraction of the smooth muscle
layers.
Vasodialation: Increases blood flow by relaxing of the smooth muscle layers.
Precapillary sphincters: Can regulate blood flow at the origin of the capillaries.

Front 54

Compare and contrast LDL’s and HDL’s. Pg. 433

Back 54

LDL’s: (Low-density Lipoproteins) Lipids, including cholesterol, are carried in
the blood attached to protein carriers. Cholesterol is carried to the arteries by
plasma proteins called LDL’s. Produced in the liver, small protein coated droplets
of cholesterol, neutral fat, free fatty acids, and phospholipids.
HDL’s: (High-Density Lipoprotein) Offers protection against atherosclerosis by
carrying cholesterol away from the arterial wall.
The cholesterol engorged macrophages are known as foam cells and play an
important role in the development of the atherosclerotic lesions. This progress
is retarded by HDL, which accepts cholesterol from the foam cells and carries it
through the blood to the liver for metabolism

Front 55

What is C-reactive protein? Pg. 434

Back 55

A marker of inflammation that is a predictor of atherosclerotic heart disease that
is possibly better than blood LDL cholesterol levels.
The inflammatory process may be instigated by oxidative damage to the artery
wall.

Front 56

What are the three basic functions of the lymphatic system? Pg. 437

Back 56

Lymphatic vessels absorb excess interstitial fluid and transport this fluid, now
called lymph, to ducts that drain into veins.
Lymphatic system has three basic functions:
1. It transports interstitial (tissue) fluid, initially formed as a blood filtrate, back to
the blood.
2. It transport absorbed fat from the small intestine to the blood.
3. It’s cells: called lymphocytes, help provide immunological defenses against
disease causing agents (pathogens).

Front 57

What are lymph nodes? Pg. 438

Back 57

Lymph nodes filter the lymph before it is returned to the cardiovascular system.
Lymph nodes contain phagocytic cells, which help remove pathogens, and
germinal centers, which are sites of lymphocytegens, and germinal centers,
which are sites of lymphocyte production.
They may also transport cancer cells that can enter and later leave the porous
lymphatic capillaries, there by seeding distant organs and thereby help cancer to
spread or metastasize.

Front 58

Explain the Frank-Starling Law of the Heart. Pg 447.

Back 58

The strength of ventricular contraction varies directly with the end-diastolic
volume (EDV=the volume of blood in the ventricles a the end of diastole.
Diastole: the period of time when the heart fills with blood after systole
(contraction).

Front 59

What is edema and what does it result from? Pg 452

Back 59

Swelling resulting from an increase in tissue fluid.
Causes:
a. High arterial blood pressure
b. Venous Obstruction
c. Leakage of plasma proteins into interstitial fluid.
d. Myxedema. The excessive production of particular glycoproteins in the
extracellular matrix caused by hypothyroidism
e. Decreased plasma protein concentration as a result in liver disease
f. Obstruction of the lymphatic drainage

Front 60

How do antidiuretic hormone, atrial natriuretic peptide, and

Back 60

aldosterone
impact blood volume?
a. Antidiurectic hommone: (AKA vasopressin): Triggers a rise in blood
volume and helps stabilize the condition of dehydration.
b. Atrial natriuretic peptide: Reduces blood volume.
c. Aldosterone: Increases blood volume by promoting the retention of salt.

Front 61

Know and be able to use Poiseulle’s Law. Pg 458

Back 61

L=length of vessel. P=mean arterial pressure. N=viscosity of blood. R=rate of blood flow

Front 62

What are nitric oxide, bradykinin, prostacyclin, and endothelin-1? Pg 461

Back 62

Nitric oxide, bradykinin, prostacyclin are paracrine regulators that promote
smooth muscle relaxation. VASODILATION.
Endothelin-1 paracrine agent that stimulates VASOCONSTRICTION in arteries.

Front 63

What is the barorecptor reflex and what does it consist of? Pg 470.

Back 63

Stretch receptors located in the aortic arch and in the carotid sinuses. As blood
pressure increases, the baroreceptors become increasingly stretched. These
result in a higher frequency of action potentials transmitted to the cardiac and
vasomotor control centers in the medulla.

Front 64

Why is hypertension dangerous? Pg. 477-478

Back 64

First, high arterial pressure increases the after load, making it more difficult for
the ventricles to eject blood. The heart must work harder, which can result in
pathological changes in the heart structure and function, leading to congestive
heart failure.
Additionally, high pressure may damage cerebral blood vessels, leading to
cerebral blood vessels, leading to cerebrovasular accident or stroke.
Finally, hypertension contributes to the development of atherosclerosis, which
can itself lead to heart disease and stroke as previously described.

Front 65

Compare and contrast hypovolemic shock, septic shock, anaphylactic
shock, neurogenic shock and cardiogenic shock. Pg 479-480

Back 65

Hypovolemic Shock – Circulatory shock that is due to low blood volume, as
caused by hemorrhage (bleeding), dehydration, or burns. Accompanied by
decrease blood pressure and decreased cardiac output.
Septic Shock – A dangerously low blood pressure (hypotension) that may
result from sepsis or infection. This can occur through the action of bacterial
lipopolysaccharied called endotoxin. Nitric oxide synthase produces nitric oxide,
which promotes vasodilation and a fall in blood pressure.
Anaphylactic Shock – A rapid fall in blood pressure as a result of a severe
allergic reaction (usually bee sting or penicillin). Results in a widespread release
of histamine, which cuses vasodilation and thus decreases total peripheral
resistance.

Front 66

Compare and contrast hypovolemic shock, septic shock, anaphylactic
shock, neurogenic shock and cardiogenic shock. Pg 479-480

Back 66

Neurogenic Shock – Sympathic tone is decreased, usually because of upper
spinal cord damage spinal anesthesia.
Cardiogenic Shock – Results from cardiac failure, as defined by a cardiac
output inadequate to maintain tissue perfusion. This commonly results from
infarction that cause the loss of a significant proportion of the myocardium.
Cardiogenic shock may also result from severe cardiac arrhythmias or valve
damage.

Front 67

Explain how K+ and CA2+ concentrations can impact heart failure. Pg. 480

Back 67

Cardiac failure occurs when the cardiac output is insufficient to maintain the
blood flow required by the body.
Heart failure can also result from disturbance in the electrolyte concentrations of
the blood. Excessive plasma K+ concentration decreases the resting membrane
potential of myocardial cells, and low blood Ca2+ reduces excitation-contraction
coupling. High blood K+ and low blood Ca2+ can thus cause the heart to stop in
diastole (relaxation). Conversely, low blood K+ and high blood Ca2+ can arrest
the heart in systole (Contraction).

Front 68

The pharmacopoeia of professional medical systems contains thousands of medicines made from.

Back 68

leaves, herbs, roots, bark, animal, mineral substances and other materials found in nature

Front 69

The biomedical approach to health does not take into account?

Back 69

the connections between disease and socioeconomic factors such as poverty and malnutrition, and even less of the connections between disease and the environment in which sick people live.

Front 70

By disrupting ecosystem function, biodiversity loss leads to?

Back 70

ecosystems that are less resilient, more vulnerable to shocks and disturbances, and less able to supply humans with needed services.

Front 71

For people to be healthy, they need ?

Back 71

they need healthy environments.

Front 72

Both traditional forms of pollution and harmful effects of the degradation of ecosystem services impact who the most?

Back 72

disproportionately by the poor

Front 73

What is taxol? What produces it?

Back 73

How does it work? a substance that kills cancer cells by a mechanism unlike that of other known chemotherapeutic agents: it prevents cell division by inhibiting the disassembly of the mitotic spindle. The commercially useless Pacific yew was routinely discarded as a trash tree during logging of old growth forests in the Pacific northwest region of the United States until it was found to contain the compound taxol

Front 74

Degradation of the amazonian forests may signify?

Back 74

not only the loss of potential pharmaceutical drugs for the developed world but also the erosion of the sole health care option for many of Brazil's rural and urban poor

Front 75

How much of our commercially available drugs are based on bioactive compounds from non human species.

Back 75

Over 50% of commercially available drugs are based on bioactive compounds extracted (or patterned) from non-human species

Front 76

Of the 150 prescription drugs currently in use int he united states, how many have animal origins.

Back 76

27 have animal origin

Front 77

What is monoalide, what produces it and how does it work.

Back 77

he sponge Luffariella variabilis (Poléjaeff, 1884) produces relatively large amounts of a chemical with anti-inflammatory activity known as monoalide. monoalide inhibits the action of an enzyme called phospholipase A2

Front 78

How have many medicinal plants spreads globally?

Back 78

Many medicinal plant species have spread globally both via intentional and carefully planned transfers and as the unintentional outcome of people's movements [77-79]. According to Voeks [79], the high proportion of medicinal plant species with wide distributions can be interpreted as the result of past and present plant movements resulting in improved medicinal floras around the world.

Front 79

What are zoonoses?

Back 79

infectious diseases can be transmitted from animals to humans

Front 80

What is the WHO and what is the WHO’s goal in medicines?

Back 80

World Health Organization. goal in medicines: "to help save lives and improve health by ensuring the quality, efficacy, safety and rational use of medicines, including traditional medicines, and by promoting equitable and sustainable access to essential medicines, particularly for the poor and disadvantaged".

Front 81

The construction of a broad public health agenda should address?

Back 81

alues (equity, ethics), sustainability (regulation, financing, knowledge generation, knowledge management, capacity building), and the research environment