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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How might drugs and food be similar in their effects on the brain?
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The are very similar; but food is needed for survival. They both pleasure the same circuits.
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What is sensory adaptation?
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a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation
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What is the retina?
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the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain
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A transparent "window"?
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the cornea
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What is the lens?
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the transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
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What is accommodation?
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occurs when the curvature of the lens adjusts to alter visual focus
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What is the opening in the center of the iris that permits light to pass into the rear chamber of the eye
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the pupil
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Optic disk
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a hole in the retina where the optic nerve fibers exit the eye
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What are cones?
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specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision
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A tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot
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fovea
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What are rods?
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specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision
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Dark adaptation
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process in which eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination
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Light adaptation
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process in which eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination
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A collection of axons from ganglion cells that connect the eye with the brain
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optic nerve
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What is lateral antagonism?
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occurs when neural activity in a cell opposes activity in surrounding cells
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What is the trichromatic theory of color vision?
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holds that the human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wave lengths
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What are primary colors?
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red, green, blue
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_______ encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors
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color blindness
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What is a perceptual set?
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a readiness to perceive a stimulus in particular way
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What is sensation?
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the stimulation of sense organs.
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the selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input
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Perception
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Signal detection
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proposes that the detection of stimuli involves decision processes as well as sensory processes, which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity
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The registration of sensory input without conscious awareness
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subliminal perception
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What are feature detectors?
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neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli
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Wavelength is most closely related to what?
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hue
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Amplitude is to what?
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brightness
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Purity is to what?
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saturation
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Complementary colors
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pairs of colors that produce gray tones when mixed together
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Afterimage
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a visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed
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What is bottom-up processing?
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a progression from individual elements to the whole
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A progression from the whole to the elements.
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top-down processing
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Gestalt
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the whole can be greater than the sum of its parts
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Phi phenomenon
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the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession
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Figure and ground
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the figure is the thing being looked at and the ground is the background against which it stands
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Proximity
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elements that are close to one another tend to be grouped together
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Closure
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viewers tend to supply missing elements to close or complete a familiar figure
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Similarity
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elements that are similar tend to be grouped together
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Simplicity
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viewers tend to organize elements in the simplest way possible
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Continuity
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viewers tend to see elements in ways that produce smooth continuation
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Perceptual hypothesis
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an inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for he proximal stimuli sensed
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What is depth perception?
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involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are
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Binocular depth cues
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clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes
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Retinal disparity
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refers to the fact that objects within 25 ft project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas, so they see slightly different views
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Convergence
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involves sensing the eyes converging toward each other as they focus on closer objects
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Monocular depth cues
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clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone
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Motion parallax
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involves images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates
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Clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture
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pictorial depth cues
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Texture gradient
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as distance increases, a texture gradually becomes denser and less distinct
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What is linear perspective?
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parallel lines that run away from the viewer seem to get closer together
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Relative size
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if separate objects are expected to be of the same size, that larger ones are seen as closer
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Interposition
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the shapes of near objects overlap or mask those of more distant ones
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Light and shadow
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patterns of light and dark suggest shadows that can create an impression of 3-D forms
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A tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input
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perceptual constancy
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Visual illusion
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involves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality
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Cochlea
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a fluid-filed, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing
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External ear
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consist mainly of the pinna, a sound-collecting cone
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Eardrum
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a taut membrane that vibrates in response
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In the middle ear:
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vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted inward not a mechincal chain made up of three tiniest bones in your body
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The three tiniest bones in your body are?
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hamer, anvil, and stirrup: ossicles
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Cochlea is located?
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inner ear
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What is the basilar membrane?
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runs the length of the spiraled cochlea, hold auditory receptors
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Place theory?
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holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along the basilar membrane
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Holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the rate or frequency at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates
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frequency theory
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Auditory localization
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locating the source of a sound in space
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What is the gustatory system?
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the sensory system for taste
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The sensory system for smell is?
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the olfactory system
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Primary tastes
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sweet, sour, bitter, and salty
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The receptors for smell are?
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olfactory cilia
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Receptors in the skin can register?
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pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp
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Beta
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frequency: 13-24
normal waking thought, alert problem solving |
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Alpha
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frequency: 8-12
deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation |
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Theta
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frequency: 4-7
light sleep |
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Delta
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frequency: <4
deep sleep |
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Sleep spindles
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brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves
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5th stage of sleep: rapid eye movements (REM)
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relatively deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high frequency, low-amplitude brain waves, and vivid dreaming
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Insomnia
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chronic problems in getting adequate sleep
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What causes insomnia?
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emotional problems, stress, excessive anxiety/tension
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How do you treat insomnia?
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sedatives
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Narcolepsy
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a disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal walking periods
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Sleep apnea
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involves frequent. reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep
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Nightmares
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anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep
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Abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep accompanied by intense automatic arousal and feelings of panic
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night terrors
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Somnambulism
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sleepwalking, occurs when a person arises and wanders about wile remaining asleep
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Narcotics
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opiates, are drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain
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Example of narcotics
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heroin, morphine, oxycodone
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What are sedatives?
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sleep inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioral activity
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Stimulants
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drugs that tend to increase CNS activation and behavioral activity
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Hallucinogens
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diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning. distorts sensory and perceptual experience
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Cannabis
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hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived
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Alcohol
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a variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol
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MDMA
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compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline
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Physical dependence
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when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness
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Learning
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any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience
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Classical conditioning
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type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
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Unconditional stimulus
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evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
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An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
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unconditioned response
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Conditioned stimulus
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previously neutral stimulus that has through conditioning acquired capacity to evoke conditioned response
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Conditioned response
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learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus
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What is spontaneous recovery?
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the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
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Stimulus generalization
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occurs when an organism has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
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An organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to original
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stimulus discrimination
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Operant conditioning
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form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences
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What is reinforcement?
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occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response
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Primary reinforcers
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events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
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Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers
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Secondary/conditioned reinforcers
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What is shaping?
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consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approx. of a desired response
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Generalization
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responding to a new stimulus as if it were original
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Schedule of reinforcement
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determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer
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Intermittent reinforcement
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occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time
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Positive reinforcement
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when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of rewarding stimulus
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When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
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negative reinforcement
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Escape learning
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an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some unpleasant stimulation
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An organism acquires a response that prevents some unpleasant stimulation from occurring
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avoidance learning
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When does punishment occur?
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when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response
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Observational learning
-Albert Bandura |
when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called *models*
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Latent learning
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learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs
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What is BF Skinners take on human “free will?”
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he believes that we believe in free will because our environment drives free will
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