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156 Cards in this Set

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What are SMART goals?

Specific


Measurable


Achievable


Realistic


Time-specific

Recovery Time?


Cardio: 24 hours


Resistance: 48-72 hours


Benefits of fitness testing?

1. Objective info to guide programme


2. Measurements to track progress


3. Educates clients on their current fitness


4. Motivate clients by setting goals

Disadvantages of fitness testing?


1. Make client self-concious/uncomfortable


2. Can take time - client may be impatient


3. Can physically stress a client


4. May reinforce negative perceptions




What should you do prior to fitness testing?

1. Gather info from client to choose best tests & build rapport


2. Health screening & Par-Q

Test order in fitness testing?
For reliable measurements should take resting measurements (e.g. B.P, weight and body composition) prior to exercise

How to measure BP digitally?

- Ensure client is calm and rested


- Place cuff on left upper arm (brachial artery)


- Set inflation pressure to 160mmHg (increase if client has hypertension until reading obtained)


- Press start


- Repeat after 1 min. to chec accuracy

Blood pressure classification?

How to measure BP manually?

-Place cuff on left upper arm, with the lower edge 2cm above the elbow crease


- Place the stethoscope over the brachial artery


-Inflate cuff to 160mmHg


-Slowly release pressure at a steady rate of 2-3mmHg, until you hear a beating sound of a pulse, this is systolic pressure


- Continue to reduce pressure - diastolic pressure is taken when the sound becomes muffled, just as or before it disappears

Define anthropometrics
Taking measureemtns of the body (height, weight, waist circumference and hip circumference)

BMI calculation?

BMI ranges?

Waist-to-hip ratio?

This can be used to determine the distribution of an individual's body fat.


Ratio = Waist(cm)/Hips(cm)


Individuals are at high risk (due to greater abdominal fat) when their value exceeds:


Male: 0.94


Female: 0.82

What does body composition measure? How?


How much fat an individual has in comparison to lean tissue.


It can be measured digitially, using machine to measure biolectrical imedance, or manually using skin fold calipers

Measuring body comp. using bioelectrical imepdance?


Involves machine passing small electric current though body and measuirng resistance to flow. Lean tissue conducts well, but fat doesn't, so can be used to predict body fat %.


- Shouldn't eat/drink within 4 hrs of assessment


- No vigorous exercsie within 12 hrs


- No alcohol consumption within 48 hrs

Measuing body comp. using skin fold calipers?


Measurements are taken at 4 sites by pinching skin, and using callipers to measure on the right side of the client's body, taking just their subcutaneous fat. Repeat this measurement to ensure conistency. These values are added together, and a table used to estimate body fat.


The 4 sites are: BICEPS, TRICEPS, SUBSCAPULAR, SUPRAILIAC

Calliper skin fold measurement sites?

Tricep Skinfold


* Vertical fold
* Located on the posterior midline of the upper arm
* Measure halfway between the acromion (bony point of the shoulder) and olecranon processes (bony point of the elbow)
* Arm held freely to the side of the body
* Vertical fold
* Located on the anterior midline of the upper arm over the belly of the biceps muscle
* Located 1 cm higher than the level used to mark the triceps site
* Diagonal fold
* Located 1 to 2 cm below the inferior angle of the scapula (the bottom of the shoulder blade)
* If you struggle to locate the bottom of the shoulder blade then ask your client to raise their arm up behind their back – this should make the scapula become more prominent.
* Diagonal fold
* Located 1 cm above the anterior superior iliac crest (top of the hip bone)
* Locating this landmark may require you to ‘poke’ firmly through thick subcutaneous layers of fat to find the bone underneath.
What is cardiorespiratory fitness?


Ability of an indiviual to take in, transport and use oxygen.


Its measured using V02max, which is the maximum oxygen uptake. Ideally, this is measured using maximal tests, although there are other less fatiguing and specialist methods.

Cycle Ergometer Test process?

Used to determine V02max:


1. Determine whether client is inactive, active, trained or well-trained, and thus use table to find the workload for each stage and target HR


2. Warm-up the client


3. Set the bike to the 1st workload


4. Record the HR at the end of the 1st minute, and again at the end of the 2nd minute - if these are within 5bpm of each other, progress to the next stage


5. Repeat this process for all stages


6. If, after 3 minutes at the final workload, a stable HR of over 110 bpm is not reached, increase the workload by a further increment and continue


7. Cool down client, until HR below 110bpm

How to interpret cycle ergometer test?


1. Use the nomogram to draw a line between the final work rate and the corresponding HR


2. Record the estimated V02max from the middle axis


3. If necessary, use the next table to apply age correction to the reading, to account for the reduction in maximum HR with aging

YMCA 3-minute Step Test?


This categories cardiorespitaory fitness based on pulse count after standardised step test.


1. Use a 30.5cm step


2. Set a metronome to 96bpm, so that client completes 24 steps every minute (4 bps)


3. Give client chance to practice stepping, using full knee extension


4. Client steps for 3 minutes, then sit client down and measure radial pulse within 5s for 1 min. - compare pulse count to table

CV machine 'fit test'?

Many CV machines have built-in fitness test programme, using HR monitoring to estimate V02max

Rockport walking test?


A client walks 1 mile briskly to estimate V02 max.


The time taken and HR are inserted into the Rockport test formula to estimate V02max

The Cooper 12 Minute Run Test?


Used to estimate V02max:


1. Warm client up


2. Establish steady, near maximal pace, the client can sustain for 12 min.


3. Start timer. The aim is to achieve max. distance in 12 min., which is recorded to nearest 100m. The pace cannot be continously varied - only once if necessary at the 1/2 way point


4. Cool down client


5. Use table/formula to analyse



What is muscular strength?
A measure of the maximum force generated in a single contraction. Its measured as 1 repetition maximum (1RM).
What is muscular endurance?

The ability of a muscle to contract repeatedly
8-12 Repetition Maximum Testing?

Many clients train this in the gym, as it gives a combined benefit of strength and endurance. To find their max. weight:


1.Select a weight you expect will overload the client at 8-12 reps. After, gain feedback and adjust if necessary


2. Find when they complete all reps (within last few) with good technique

Press up test?


Test counts the number of press ups in 1 min.


1. Start in standard down position, and start timer and count


2. Ensuring arms fully extend with each, count the number performed consecutively without rest


Abdominal Curl-up (crunch) test?


Measures the local muscular endurance of the spine flexors (rectus abdominus and external obliques)


1. Client lies supine on mat, with feet flat and knees bent at 90 degrees. Arms held straight with palms on front of thighs.


2. Set metronome to 50bpm, allowing completion of 25 curl ups per min.


3. Client performs as many curl-ups as possible in time with metronome without pausing, up to a max. of 25

Sit-up test?


Test involves client performing as many sit-ups possible in 1 min.


1. Ensuring correct technique, start timer and count - resting is allowed


What is flexibiltiy?
The ability to move a joint through its ROM.

Sit and reach test?

This tests flexilibility of hamstrings & lower back:


1. Warm client up


2. Sit, with feet flat against box and legs straight


3. Cross hands to avoid hip rotation


4. Client leans forward, breathing out


5. Best of 3 distance is recorded

What is used to measure ROM of various joints?

A 'goniometer' - this measures the ROM in degrees. A faster method is simply visual assessment

How to determine ROM of neck?


You are visually checking LATERAL FLEXION (head swaying side to side).


Ensuring eyes remain facing forward, so any rotation is avoided. Simple compare left to right.

How to determine ROM of shoulder?

Visually assess SHOULDER ROTATION - reach behind the back, trying to touch fingers. Measure the distance beteen fingers, and compare left to right.

How to determine flexibility of Latissimus dorsi?

Have client stand with shoulder blades & bum against wall, with neutral spine. Hands slightly wider that shoulder, palms facing in. Lift the arms straight up. Monitor curve in back, stop when back curves in. Measure distance from wrist to wall, and compare left & right.

How to determine flexibility of adductors?

Abduct legs, keeping upright posture and legs straight. Visually estimate the angle, and compare left to right.

How to determine flexibility of hamstrings?

Supporting leg bent, with test leg straight. Pelvis & lumbar spine neutral. Flex one hip as far as possible without raising pelvis/bending knee. Visually assess angle, and compare left to right.

How to determine flexibility of quadriceps?

Lay on front. Keep knees together. Flex one knee as far as possible, without raising knee from floor. Measure distance from heel to buttocks. Compare left to right.
How to determine flexibility of calf?

Stand with back to wall for balance, feet hip width and pointing forwards. Raise toes (DORSIFLEXION) as far as possible. Estimate angle between heel and floor. Compare left & right.

How to determine flexibility during lunge?

Lunge position, with back foot 4 foot lengths behind the front. Aim for 90 degrees at both knees. Observe the leg and torso from front and side. If the torso isn't upright = tight rectus femoris. If back leg abducting from hip = tight tensor fascia latae. Compare left and right.
What is kyphosis?

Exaggerated curve of the thoracic spine, so head & shoulders are 'forward'. The cervical spine usually compensates by developing a sharp inward curve. Neck/upper back pain caused by this.


This usually occurs when muscles in the front of the body become tightened and short, whilst those in the upper back lengthen/weaken.


Therefore must stretch anterior muscles (pectoralis minor, deep neck flexors & rectus abdominus), whilst strengthening middle & lower trapezius and thoracis portion of erector spinae.



What is lordosis?

Excessive curvature of lumbar spine, which is linked to forward tilt of the pelvis, causing abdomen to bulge forwards and buttocks to move back. Common when too much weight is carried around abdominal region (e.g. pregnancy/obesity). Lower back pain as a result, as the excessive curve compresses the posterior lip of the inter-vertebral discs - over time these degenerate and lose thickness, so increase the chance of vertebrae impinging on a nerve root.


Should try to correct tilit of pelvis. This is usually fo to tight erector spinae in the lumbar region and the muscles that flex the hip (rectus femoris & tensor fascia latea) - so stretch these muscles. The oppsoite muscles (glutes and abdominal group) will the weakened/lengtherned, so should be strengthened.


What is scoliosis?
Curvature of spine in frontal plane.
What is the Karvonen method?

A method to determine target HR, taking into account resting heart rate:


1. Calculate MaxHR


2. Subtract resting HR from MaxHR to find heart rate reserve (HRR)


3. Find % of HRR, by using target HR %


4. Add this value to resting HR to find target HR

Talk Test?

Determines if client working at aerobic or anaerobic intensity:


If they are able to breathe rhythmically and hold a conversation = aerobic


When sentences become broken = anaerobic

How to vary the intensity of an exercise?

RESISTANCE


REPS


REST


RATE (speed)


RANGE OF MOVEMENT


LEVER LENGTH


STABILITY (e.g. stand 1 leg)


SEQUENCE (e.g. if work all on legs in sequence = more intense than if broken up)

ACSM guidelines for CV training?

F - 3-5x per week


I - 57-94% MaxHR


T - 20-90mins


T - rhythmic aerobic exercise, incorporating large muscle groups

Fitness level against recommended intensity, effort perception and recommended duration? (ACSM)

4 CV zones, in terms of %HR and RPE?

Moderate cardio zone?

55-70% MaxHR


This is ideal for deconditioned clients.


Ideal for health-related goals.


Increases fatty acid utilisation.


Increased mitochondria/capillary density.

Fitness cardio zone?

70-80% MaxHR


Better fitness gains than in moderate zone.


Burns more calories in time.


But greater discomfort, due to more lactic acid in blood.


Improved type I fibre recruitment.


Improved aerobic glycolysis.


Increased aerobic enzymes in muscles.


Improved oxygen transport.

OBLA cardio zone?

80-90% HR - ONSET OF BLOOD LACTATE ACCUMULATION


During this change energy supply from aerobic to anaerobic (anaerobic threshold).


Deconditioned clients are likely to go anaerobic at a lower HR than this.


Uncomfortable due to high lactic acid levels.


Increases injury risk.


Improved type II muscle fibre recruitment.


Increased anaerobic threshold.


Improved tolerance & clearance of lactate.


Improved anaerobic glycolysis.

Anaerobic cardio zone?

90-100% HR - MAXIMAL INTENSITY


Energy supply mainly from creatine phosphate and lactic acid systems. Therefore only short bursts possible, with prolonged recovery.


Increased injury risk.


Improved type II muscle fibre recruitment.


Increased anaerobic enzymes in muscles.


Improved maximum oxygen transport/

What is the preferred exertion?
Research shows the preferred intensity is 60-70% MaxHR, with a RPE of 11-14, corresponding to moderate exercise.
What is continuous training?

This means maintaining a constant pace/intensity for a period of time.


Can be moderate zone, fitness zone or just below the anaerobic threshold (this is TEMPO TRAINING/RACE PACE as its the max. pace a client can maintain)



+ves of continuous training?

-Simple


-Easy to track progress


-Good for deconditioned as no jumps in intensity



-ves of continuous cardio training?

- Boring


- Uses only aerobic energy system


- Only uses type I muscles


- Children/older/ante/postnatal women may be more suited for interval

What is fartlek training?
When the pace is constantly changing in an unstructured manner, depending on how the client feels.
+ves of fartlek training?

- Uses both aerobic & anaerobic energy systems


- Uses both type I and type II muscle fibres


- Adds variety


- Can be more challenging


- Helps avoid plateau as every workout is different


- Trains client's ability to change pace & recover quickly


-Mimics changes in pace, as in sports

-ves of fartlek?

- Harder to monitor progress


- Difficult for client to replicate


- Intensity may be too high

What is interval training?

Structured work and rest periods at higher and lower intensities.


E.g. may sprint in anaerobic zone, then recover in aerobic zone to allow lactate to reduce

What are tabata intervals?

Form of interval training:


5 minute warm-up


6-8 intervals of 20s work, 10s rest


5 minute cool-down


Work at max. intensity

+ves of interval training?

- Allows high volume of high intensity training


- Blood lactate levels lower than with continuous high intensity


- Easy to monitor improvements


- Can target appropriate energy system & fibre types with precise work/rest periods


- Can progress by manipulating work/rest times


- Trains clients ability to change pace and recover


-Mimics pace changes in sports


- Can be adapted to suit all levels

-ves of interval training?

- Hard for client to replicate, with precise work/rest periods


- May be too regimented

What is circuit training?
Consists of different exercises performed consecutively, with minimal rest.

+ves of circuit training?

- Challenging


- Adds variety


- Adaptable to different fitness levels


- Can be used to train different energy systems/fibre types

-ves of circuit training?

- May take up lots of space, and be time-consuming to set up


- Difficult for client to replicate


-May be too competitive for some clients

Define limit strength/absolute strength?

This is max. strength demonstrated when normal inhibitory mechanisms are removed (e.g. in life-threatening situation/hypnosis).


It exceeds ordinary levels of strength.

What is relative strength?
The maximum force your muscles can generate in relation to your weight. I.e. strength to weigh ratio
What is maximal competitive strength? Maximal training strength?
The maximum force your muscles can generate with the extra stimulus of a competitive environment, vs. without.
Define starting strength
The ability to generate maximal force at the beginning of a movement

Define explosive/acceleration strength
The ability to continue increasing the force developed from starting strength
Define reactive strength
The ability of your muscles to switch from eccentric to concentric contraction (and vice versa). This is important in decelerating the limb, and preventing injury.
Define muscular endurance
The maximal amount of force your muscles can generate for a prolonged period of time or through multiple movements

What causes the achy feeling at the end of a set?
The build up of lactic acid, as weight lifting uses lactic acid system predominantly

Define power

Power = strength x speed


Its the ability to move a resistance with speed, explosively

Define progressive overload
Training adaptions only occur if the training load exceeds the habitual level the muscles are used to
Define individaulity
How a client responds to training stimulus unique, due to genetics, body type, physiological status, diet, age, stress, sleep, training experience
Define 'The accommodation principle'
The response of an organism to a constant stimulus reduces over time - so if same training repeated, fitness gains will diminish
Define the 'GAS principle'

GENERAL ADAPTION SYNDROME


The principle describes how any organism responds to stress - in the following stages:


A -ALARM - application of stress


B -RESISTANCE - body adapts to resist the stress more efficiently


C - EXHAUSTION - persistent exposure to stress exhausts our ability to adapt (similar to accommodation principle)

Time taken for adaptions in different resistance training types?



What is the use and disuse principle?

Benefits of training are reversible


How quickly you lose benefits depends on genetics, activity level, gender, age, body type

Define specificity
In order to gain specific adaptions, you must train specifically
What are the resistance training acute variables?

These are variables that can be manipulated to vary the outcome of a resistance training session:


- Reps


- Resistance


- Rest


- No. sets


- Tempo (speed of training)


- Frequency of training

What is tempo?

The speed at which each rep is performed. It affects which type of muscle fibre is recruited (slow = type I)


Its usually written as 3/2/1, which denotes the time for the eccentric, isometric and concentric phases. Often a 2/0/2 tempo is used for hypertrophy training, as this gives significant time under tension.

How does the length of rest between sets affect training?

Muscular endurance = 30-60s


Hypertrophy = 60-120s


Maximal strength/ power = 3-5 min.

Table of no. reps against the % 1RM, main energy system & main adaptions?

Table showing reps, %RM, no. sets, resr, tempo and frequency for different types of resistance training?

ACSM guidelines for resistance training?

F - 2-3x per week (non-consecutive days, so 48hr recovery)


I - About 60-80% 1RM, 8-12 reps, 1-4 sets. 2-3 min. rest (to muscular fatigue but not failure), 8-10 different exercises


T - 20-60 min.


T - Resistance machines / free weights, training agonist & antagonist muscles

What is isometrics?

Isometric training involves holding a weight still/pushing against an immoveable object. (e.g. many core stability exercises).


An issue is that isometric contractions temporarily impede blood flow through muscles. They also tend to encourage breath holding, resulting in a quick rise in b.p. They therefore shouldn't be done in people with hypertension, and elderly shouldn't hold for more than 10s

What is vibration plate training?

It involves clients performing squats/lunges on a vibrating plate. Its thought to stimulate greater muscle activity, resulting in greater gains in strength/bone density.


However it shouldn't be used for people with: pregnancy, cardiovascular conditions, severe osteoporosis, acute thrombosis conditions, pace maker, cancer, epilepsy, with intra-uterine devices

What are the Rotator Cuff Muscles?

These are muscles located on the posterior & anterior surfaces of the scapula. Their function is to rotate the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity (socket), and to stabilise the joint as the shoulder moves.


If the rotator cuff muscles are weak/poorly controlled, then injury to the ligaments & cartilage in the shoulder is more likely, particularly when client performs repetitive motions involving the shoulder (e.g. swimming)

How to train the rotator cuff muscles?
1. EXTERNAL ROTATION (image)
 - targets infraspinatus and teres minor muscles (as well as some activation of supraspinatus & rear deltoid)2. INTERNAL ROTATION - this challenges the subscapularis, as well as some activity of the pectoralis major

1. EXTERNAL ROTATION (image)

- targets infraspinatus and teres minor muscles (as well as some activation of supraspinatus & rear deltoid)

2. INTERNAL ROTATION - this challenges the subscapularis, as well as some activity of the pectoralis major

What are single sets?

They are exercises performed singly.


They are useful for beginners, or those wishing to maintain their muscle mass & strength.


The probable outcome is to develop motor skills & increase recruitment of motor units in beginners

What is the probable outcome of circuit training?
Development of muscular endurance, hypertrophy, or maximal strength, depending on the resistance & reps used.

What is Peripheral Heart Action (PHA)?

Its a form of circuit training, where the exercises are sequenced so that different areas of the body are worked one after each other. The primary goal is to keep blood moving from one part of the body to the next, without pooling. Heart rate should be maintained above 140bpm.


Typically 8-12 reps per exercise.


Its suited to intermediate/advanced clients.


Its outcome is increased muscular endurance, cardiovascular conditioning, and to some extent hypertrophy.

What are basic sets?

These are also known as multiple sets.


Its where 2+ sets are performed.


The outcome depends on the number of reps, the rest and the resistance.

What is the Delorme and Watkins system?

It involves PROGRESSIVE RESISTANCE EXERCISE (PRE). In which the resistance is increased with each set. The 10RM is used to decide the resistance. Overall the exercise programme consists of 30 reps, divided into 3 sets of 10. Typically there is 1-2mins rest between each set for hypertrophy. The recommended training frequency is 4 days consecutively.


The outcome depends on the frequency the programme is performed.


E.g. set 1 = 10 reps at 50% 10RM, set 2 = 10 reps at 75% 10RM and set 3 = 10 reps at 100% 10RM

What is a compound set?

This is when 2 exercises for the same muscle group are performed consecutively with no rest in between.


The rep. range & resistance chosen determines the outcome. But its more suited to hypertrophy & endurance.

What is a tri set?

When 3 exercises are performed in sequence, using the same muscle groups, with no rest.


The rep. range & resistance determines outcome, but its more suited to endurance & hypertrophy.

What is a giant set?
Where 4+ exercises for same muscle group are performed with no rest.

What are super sets (Agonist-antagonists)?

This is where an exercise is performed for one muscle (the agonist), and a 2nd is performed for the antagonist immediately, before a rest period is given.


Its very time efficient.


The outcome depends on the resistance & reps chosen.

What is pre-post exhaust?

When performing compound exercises (e.g. chest press), the smaller muscles (e.g. triceps) may tire before the larger (e.g. pectoralis major), which may mean that although triceps reach overload to stimulate the development, the pectoralis may not.


The larger muscle may therefore be pre-exhausted by performing an isolation exercise prior, so the bigger & smaller muscles are more likely to simultaneously reach fatigue.


Alternatively, the isolation exercise can follow the compound exercise.


The probable outcome is best gains in hypertrophy. Its commonly used for the pectoralis major, the latissimus dorsi and the quads.

What are pyramids?

A training system, which is either:


1. ASCENDING - in which resistance increased with each set (warm-up needed prior)


2. DESCENDING - in which resistance decreases


3. FULL - involves both ascending & descending phases


Its quite time-consuming.


The outcome depends on the rep range & resistance used.

What us the Berger system?

A system which involves doing 3 sets of 6 reps, at the 6RM. This should cause overload 3 times. Although the client is unlikely to reach the 6RM for every set.


Once the client can perform 3 x 6 reps at this, a new 6RM must be calculated.


The probable outcome is in strength & hypertrophy.

What are strip sets?

Also known as drop sets, the stripping method, or descending sets.


This is where the client performs reps at the highest resistance until momentary muscular failure. The resistance is then immediately decreased, and performed the failure again, for 2/3 drop sets after the initial set.


This is a very intense method as there is no rest. Its therefore usually used on the last set of an exercise.


The outcome depend on the reps & resistance.

What are 'Negatives'?

Skeletal muscles can lower more resistance under control (ECCENTRIC) than they can lift up (CONCENTRIC). The lowering part is called the negative phase.


You can therefore perform negatives, in which the PT acts as a spotter to help client lift the weight. The client then lowers it on its own. This allows weights greater than 1RM to be lowered, which helps psychologically with lifting heavier. Muscles, tendons & ligaments are placed under max. stress.


Often 4-6 reps for this.


Some upper body machines have a foot bar which allows clients to do this without spotter.


The probable outcome is that the eccentric strength will increase. There may be greater concentric strength transferred.


It is associated with greater DOMS, so should be used infrequency (once per fortnight)

What are forced repetitions?

Or 'ASSISTED REPS' - these are when the PT assists 3/4 extra reps after failure.


The outcome depends on the reps/resistance chosen.

What is cheating?

This involves using momentum, or the assistance of other muscle groups to overcome the resistance. This allows for a heavier resistance/more reps to be carried out after failure.


This is because every lift has a weak point, where the muscles & leverage are least effective which limits the usable weight - this eliminates this problem.


The outcome is increased strength, with some hypertrophy.

What are Partial Repetitions?

When failure has been reached, partial reps can be carried out, not through the full ROM.


The outcome depends on the resistance/reps.

What is the matrix system?

This involves using partial repetitions in a structured sequence. E.g a set may consist of 5 reps outer range, 5 reps inner range & 5 reps full range.


A similar system is called the 'platoon system' or '21s', in which 7 reps of each range are performed.


The probable outcome is increased endurance & hypertrophy.

Resistance training for children?

Should mainly be bodyweight, as lack maturity to be safe.


There is a worry that may damage epiphyseal growth plates, so limit to 8-15 reps.

Resistance training for older adults?

Important to prevent OSTEOPAENIA (reduction in bone mineral density) & OSTEOPOROSIS (more extreme).


Also maintains strength, muscle mass.


Should be done 2x per week, with 8-10 exercises & 10-15 reps targeting main muscle groups, at a moderate intensity.

What are 'mirroring exercises'?

Exercises that use antagonistic muscles, as they are in opposite planes of motion.


Important to maintain muscular balance.

What is the aim of core stability?

To improve the function of the muscles surrounding the torso, so that they give better protection & support to the joints of the lower back.


Core stability exercises should aim to improve endurance more than strength, so should progress in terms of reps & duration.


These can involve specific core exercises, or traditional resistance training (e.g. squats, deadlifts, bent over barbell row, standing shoulder press and cable pushing/pulling)

Benefits of a strong core?

-Lower risk of lower back injury


-Better posture


-Increased functional strength (ability to transfer force between legs & arms)

What are the different muscles of the core?

1. GLOBAL./MOBILISER MUSCLES -these are the big surface muscles, responsible for large movements of the trunk & gross stability (e.g. erector spinae & rectus abdominus) - these are visible in someone with good definition, and can be trained easily with ab crunches & back extensions


2. LOCAL/STABILISER MUSCLES - these lie deeper in the body, closer to the vertebral column and have more subtle stabilising functions. They are responsible for making slight adjustments to the alignment between adjacent vertebrae, and are recruited prior to gross movement of the trunk to prevent unwanted movement between vertebrae (Segmental stability). (E.g. multifidus & transversus abdominus) - these are not visible, and are harder to train




Its important that there is a balance of tension between all core muscles for overall stability of the vertebral column

How can you use equipment to engage local stabiliser muscles?
Can use an unstable base using a swiss ball/bosu ball, as it places greater demand on these mechanisms.
Exercises for local stabiliser muscles?

Aim to constantly hold the spine in neutral alignment.


1. DRAWING IN - use deep muscles of abdominal wall to draw in lower abdomen and hold for several seconds, then release. Keep lumbar spine in neutral position and breathe normally.


2. SUPERMAN - raise opposite arm and leg challenges the local spinal muscles to prevent flexion, extension & rotation


3. BRIDGE


4. PLANK

Exercises for mobiliser muscles?

1. ABDOMINAL CRUNCH -progress by moving hands from thighs, to behind head, to extended behind head. This challenges the large spine flexors (rectus abdominus & obliques)


2. BACK EXTENSION - engages larger erector spinae muscles


3. CABLE ROTATION - engages the global rotators (external/internal obliques)

Benefits of flexibility?

-Ability to do everyday functions


-Better performance in sports like gymnastics


-May be reduced risk of muscle strain


-Better muscle balance


-Better posture

How to identify tight muscles and how to resolve?
Muscles work in opposing pairs - so if one muscle is too long, the opposing is likely to be short & tight. However, simply strengthening the lengthened muscle leads to worse muscle balance. Must therefore focus on lengthening the tight muscle by stretching.

How to treat someone with hyper-mobility?
Stretching is not recommended. Instead should focus on muscle strengthening & movement control, to improve joint stability.
Common tight muscles?

-Hamstrings


-Hip flexors


-Pectoralis major


-Upper trapexius


-Adductor


-Calf

ACSM recommendations for flexibility training?

F - 2-3x per week


I Static stretches held to point of 'mild tightness, without discomfort'


T Hold each stretch for 15-60s, with 4 reps per muscle group


T Static, dynamic, ballistic, or PNF




Should be done after pulse raiser, so that muscles are warm.

What are myostatic reflexes?
These are part of the nervous system which control the position & tension of skeletal muscles. There are 2 principal myostatic reflexes: those controlled by the muscle spindles, and those controlled by the Golgi tendon organs.
What are the muscle spindles?

These are 'stretch receptors', located parallel to the muscle's contractile units, deep inside the muscle. Their purpose is to detect the length of the muscle and also whether the length is changing quickly.


E.g. during rapid lengthening, this will be sensed, and trigger a reflex arc to contract the same muscle, to prevent the muscle lengthening too far & tearing.


This means in flexibility training you shouldn't try to lengthen a muscle too quickly/forcibly

What are the Golgi tendon organs?

These are located near the ends of the muscle, at the junction between the muscles & tendons. Their purpose is to detect muscle tension, and also whether that tension is changing too quickly.


E.g. if too much weight is lifted, the GTOs sense excessive tension in the prime movers. They cause inhibition signals to be sent to the prime movers, thus causing relaxation


This inhibition response may be used in flexibility training to deepen a stretch

What is static stretching?

Lengthening a muscle slowly, and holding for 15-60s.


Improvements in flexibility occur due to adjustments to the stretch reflex, and by lengthening tightened connective tissue running through the muscle-tendon unit.


However, a static stretch may not prepare a muscle for rapid lengthening experienced in sport.


A static stretch can be passive/active:


PASSIVE - where another muscle/object is used to provide a force to bring about stretch. The drawback to this is that if used inappropriately, they may promote excessive ROM and reduce joint stability.


ACTIVE - where the antagonist muscle contracts, to lengthen the agonist (reciprocal innervation - this is a form of reflex inhibition). The drawback to this is that it relies on the strength of the antagonist being sufficient to stretch the target.

What is dynamic stretching?

This is stretching with movement - the muscle is continually lengthened, then shortened, without being held, under moderate speed.


This helps prepare the muscles for rapid lengthening in sports.

What is ballistic stretching?

This is when a dynamic stretch is applied with rapid, explosive movements several times in a bouncing fashion.


Its less safe as it involves less control and you may over stretch.

What is proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF)?

This is used to describe a number of techniques to increase flexibility. The basic principle is to first put a muscle under tension by making it contract, by pushing against an immoveable object, then releasing it. After release, the muscle is more relaxed than usual and can be stretched beyond normal range. This may be due to the GTO's response to contraction.


There are 2 methods:


1. CONTRACT-RELAX


2. CONTRACT-RELAX-AGONIST CONTRACT (CRAC)

Contract-relax method of PNF?


1. Warm clients muscles up


2. Target muscle lengthened until mild tension felt


3. Client contracts target muscle in this position, by pushing against an immoveable object


4. Muscle briefly relaxes, then is passively stretched for 10-30s


5. Repeat 2-3 times

CRAC method of PNF?

1. Warm clients muscles up


2. Target muscle lengthened until mild tension felt


3. Client contracts target muscle in this position, by pushing against an immoveable object


4.Agonist muscle is actively contracted to stretch the target muscle


This uses reciprocal innervation to further relax the target muscle to achieve a deeper stretch

What is the myofascia?

The connective tissue layers that envelope and separate muscle. Restriction of this can cause muscle tightness & poor flexibility.


Self-myofascial release (using a foam roller) involves applying pressure & traction to the connective tissue to ease the tight areas.


A foam roller can be used to target the quadriceps, hamstrings, illiotibial band (lying on side on outer thigh- rolling from top of knee to bottom of hip), and erector spinae.

What are motor skills?

It involves neuromuscular control, the components are:


-Balance


-agility


-coordination


-proprioception


-reaction time

How is balance maintained?
Through feedback from ear canals, muscle spindles & GTOs, and from vision.
What is coordination?
The ability to use muscles in the correct order, speed & force to achieve a smooth, skilled movement.

What is reaction time?
The ability to react to a stimulus quickly with an appropriate response

What is agility?
The ability to change direction as quickly as possible

How does momentum challenge motor skills?
As p=mv, a large object moving at speed has a large momentum and so presents a much greater control challenge to the nervous system.
What does a pivot consist of?

- Load (weight to be lifted)


- Fulcrum (pivot e.g. joint)


-Force (generated by muscles)


To make exercise harder, the lever can be made longer - its harder to move and control this weight.

How to improve motor skills?

This involves repetition, in order to cause physiological changes in the nervous system to ensure that the nervous system will adapt, making it more likely that the impulse will follow the correct path.


Motor skill training should take place immediately after warm-up, so there is no neuromuscular fatigue.


Movements should progress in terms of speed & complexity.


Training should occur 2-3x per week. Examples include Tai Chi, yoga & pilates.

Why can you often lift heavier on resistance machines, compared to free weights?
As resistance machines provide more stability, so place less demand on motor skills.
What stabilisation exercises can be used to improve motor skills?

These are static exercises which mainly improve balance:


-Single leg balance


-Single leg balance + reach (stand on one leg with arms reached ahead, hinged forward at the waist)

What mobilisation exercises can be used to improve motor skills?

These involve dynamic movements, which focus on coordination + balance:


-single leg squat


-step up + balance (on a bench)

How is progressive overload incorporated into a fitness programme?

Exercises are made more intense over successive weeks, by manipulating the frequency, intensity, time & type.


Progressive overload by gradual week-to-week increments is referred to as 'linear progression'. This is sufficient for most clients, but professionals may find it too limiting - in this case 'periodization' is used

What is overtraining syndrome?

OTS occurs if training intensity is excessive and there is insufficient recovery for adaptions.


Symptoms include:


-Reduced performance


-Increased depression/anxiety


-Increased catabolic, rather than anabolic, hormones


-Altered resting HR & bp


-Sleep disturbances


-Increased injuries


-Chronic fatigue

Why is periodisation used?

Linear progression is suitable for most clients - however there reaches a point where increasing frequency no longer leaves enough time for recovery, increasing duration leads to repetitive strain injuries, and weight leads to poor technique & muscle strain.


Therefore adopt 'periodisation' to avoid this plateau, by manipulating these varaibles in certain 'periods' or 'cycles'.

Reasons for periodization?

-Prevents OTS


-Prevents plateaus


-Ensures training doesn't get montonous


-Allow sufficient rest and recovery


-Ensure peak fitness coincides with major events


-Prevent over-use injuries

How does periodization work?

Its a programme consisting of:


MACROCYCLES - overall programme, typically 3-12 months until goal achieved


MESOCYCLES - next division, 4-8 weeks duration, correspond with acheiving medium-term goal


MICROCYCLES - 1 week, has own short term goal which contribute to larger goals


In a periodised programme the volume & intensity are varied.


There are different ways of doing this.

What is volume?
The total quantity of training completed. It can be measured in distance (km per week), time, or total resistance lifted (exercises x sets x reps x resistance).

What is intensity?

How hard training is.


For resistance, its determined by weight lifted.


For CV, its determined by HR or RPE.

Classic periodisation?
Tends to cinsist of high volume, low intensity -> mod. volume + intensity -> low volume, high intensity. This ensures they peak for the correct time. It can be applied to either resistance or CV.
Following the event, active rest is adopted (low in...

Tends to cinsist of high volume, low intensity -> mod. volume + intensity -> low volume, high intensity. This ensures they peak for the correct time. It can be applied to either resistance or CV.


Following the event, active rest is adopted (low intensity).


The competition phase should be the shortest, as its difficult to maintain peak fitness without over-training.

What is step loading?
Another form of periodisation. This involves a variation in training volume & intensity over a 4 week cycle. 
The first 3 weeks of the cycle get gradually harder, from low to high intensity. On the 4th week, training load is reduced to allow for a...

Another form of periodisation. This involves a variation in training volume & intensity over a 4 week cycle.


The first 3 weeks of the cycle get gradually harder, from low to high intensity. On the 4th week, training load is reduced to allow for active recovery.


Each subsequent step is at a slightly higher intensity than the previous cycle, so long-term progression occurs.