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44 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Perception
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process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment
people base behavior on perception not reality |
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Factors that influence perception
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1. perceiver
2. target 3. situation |
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Perceiver
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When you try to perceive something you are heavily influenced by your personally characteristics like:
- experiences - personality - values - attitudes - interests - expectations |
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Target
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Characteristics of the target influence our perception
more likely to notice a load person than a quiet one more likely to notice someone who is extremely attractive or unattractive comparative problems arise grouping things together - give them similar characteristics |
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Situation
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time of day, location, light, heat, ect.
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Attribution Theory
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Explains why we judge people differently (whether it was internally caused or externally caused) when perceiving their actions based on
1. distinctiveness 2. consensus 3. consistency |
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Distinctiveness
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If an individual displays different behaviors in different situations
ex) if he is late for work, does he hand his paper in late? high distinctiveness = external low distinctiveness = internal |
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Consensus
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If an individuals results are similar to everyone else's
ex) if everyone did poorly on the test = consensus high consensus = external low consensus = internal |
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Consistency
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If the individual has done this multiple times
ex) always comes to work late high consistency = internal low consistency = external |
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Fundamental attribution error
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When we judge behavior we tend to underestimate external causes and overestimate influences of internal or personal factors
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Self serving bias
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When people blame external factors when something goes wrong but blame internal factors when something goes right
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Short cuts
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1. selective perception
2. stereotyping 3. halo effect 4. contrast effect |
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Selective perception
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We are more likely to notice characteristics that confirm / are consistent with our expectations, experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and motives
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Stereotyping
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Judging people on the basis of our perception of the group he belongs in
generalizations have to make sure we are not unfairly stereotyping |
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Contrast effect
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cannot help but compare someone/something to the context it is in / the things before after and around it
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Halo effect
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The belief that if someone is a really really good student then his devotion to his studies must extend across all parts of his life
general impression of someone based on a single characteristic |
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Link between decision making and individual perception
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Awareness that a problem exists and that a decision might or might not be needed is a perceptual issue
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Decision
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choosing between two or more alternatives
how managers make decisions and the quality of their choices is largely influenced by their perceptions |
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problem
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arises when there is a discrepancy between a desired state of affairs and an actual sate
where or not there is a problem that requires a decision is a perception issue |
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Rational decision making model
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making value-maximing choices within specific constraints
six steps: 1. define the problem 2. identify decision criteria 3. allocate weights to criteria 4. develop alternatives 5. evaluate alternatives 6. select best alternative |
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Rational decision making model assumptions
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1. decision maker has complete information
2. decision maker is able to identify all relevant options 3. decision maker can make a decision in an unbiased manner |
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Bounded rationality
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the limited information processing capabilities of humans make it impossible to assimilate and understand all the info necessary to make the optimal decision
inside people SATISFICE aka seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient |
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Bounded rationality process
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1. identify the problem
2. search for criteria and alternatives (stick with limited criteria that are familiar and easy) 3. review alternatives (focus on alt that differs only in a relatively small degree from the choice currently in effect) better because doesn't require as much money, time, or effort |
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Intuitive decision making "blink"
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least rational way of making a decision
it relies on an unconscious process created from distilled experience occurs outside conscious thought, relies on holistic associations / links between contrasting pieces of info, it is fast, it is affectively charged (engages emotions) |
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Common biases and errors in decision making
OH A RACE |
1. overconfidence bias
2. anchoring bias 3. availability bias 4. escalation of commitment 5. confirmation bias 6. risk aversion 7. hindsight bias |
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Overconfidence bias
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When we're given factual questions and asked to judge the probability that are answers are correct we tend to be far too optimistic
say 65-60 percent confident 50 percent correct say you're 100 percent usually 70 percent me on exams more likely to be seen in individuals who interpersonal and intellectual abilities are the weakest more knowledge less overconfidence more optimistic entrepreneur = less successful because don't evaluate all the problems |
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Anchoring bias
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tendency to fixate on the initial information
causes you to fail to adequately adjust for subsequent information |
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Availability Bias
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tendency to base judgements on the information that is readily available
events that evoke emotion and are vivid tend to be more available in our memory - leading us to overestimate the chances of unlikely events (air plane crashes) |
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Escalation of commitment
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Staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it is wrong
people want to prove that their initial position isn't wrong and don't want to admit they made a mistake group shift? more likely in people who engage in rational decision making model because they have so much committed in thinking of their choices |
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Risk Aversion
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tendency to prefer the less risky course of action
implications: employees that don't take risk and stick with their consistent strategies are more likely to hit stagnation managers tend to be risk averse when their power can be taken away |
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Hindsight bias
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the tendency to believe falsely after the outcome is known that we accurately predicted it
when we have accurate feedback on the outcome, we seem to be pretty good at concluding the obvious things are all too clear in hindsight MY MATH TEST. |
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Confirmation Bias
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Rationale decision making model assumes that we objectively / without bias gather info
however we tend to gather information that confirms our beliefs, motivations, expectations, or past choices skeptical of information that challenges our views |
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Organizational constraints on decision making
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1. performance evaluations
2. reward systems 3. precedents 4. regulations 5. time constraints |
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Performance Evaluation
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People are influenced by the criteria that they are evaluated on
people try to make sure information doesn't reach bosses - vertical communication FILTERING! |
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Reward system
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suggests what choices have better pay offs
ex) rewards risk aversion then people will be more conservative |
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Formal regulations
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(mechanic / bureaucratic system)
limit decisions |
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system imposed time constraints
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deadlines
make it difficult for managers to gather all the information that they want / need before they make a final choice |
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Historical precedents
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context in which decisions are made
choices made today are largely a result of choices made over the years |
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Three ethical decision criteria
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utlitarianism
rights justice |
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Utilitarianism
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focuses on outcomes
greatest outcome for the greatest number of people consistent with goals like productivity, high profit, and efficiency (bureaucratic) sidelines the rights of individuals (specifically minority) |
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Rights
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focuses on a specific guide of rights / fundamental liberties and privileges given by a document like a bill of rights
an emphasis on rights means focusing on respecting and protecting the basic rights of people (privacy, speech, du process) protects whistle blowers who call out an organization for unethical behavior (free speech) legalistic environment that could prevent efficiencies |
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Justice
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equitable distribution of benefits and costs
impose and enforce rules fairly unions favor this = equal pay focuses on the interests of the underrepresented and less powerful but encourages a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking, innovation and productivity |
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Creativity
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fostering creativity is very beneficial as it allows the decision maker to fully appraise and understand the problem and see problems that others cannot see
it is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas creative potential is chained down by psychological ruts and constraints people who score high on openness to experience are more likely to be creative traits: independence, self confidence, risk taking, tolerance for ambiguity, low need for structure, and perseverance exposure to a wide variety of cultures fosters creativity |
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Three component model of creativity
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states that creativity relies on
1. expertise 2. creative thinking skills 3. intrinsic task motivation |
