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106 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Heart: a narrowed heart valve would decrease blood flow through the valve...thus:
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reduce cardiac output from the affected side of the heart; when heart rate is greatly increased, there is not sufficient time for ventricular filling, therefore less output;
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Lungs: loss of elastic fibers in the lungs leads to decreased recoil of the lungs and less expired air...thus:
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destruction of the alveolar wall causes less diffusion of gases and interferes with blood flow through the lungs.
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What are the three causes of disease/pathphysiology?
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1. Infections
2. Neoplasms 3. Genetic defect |
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Cellular level is the...
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microscopic level
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Biopsy is...
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excision of a very small amount of living tissue
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Autopsy
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examination after death
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Diagnosis
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identification of specific disease through evaluation of signs, symptoms, lab tests etc
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hyper vs hypo...means what
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Extra vs. lack of
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Etiology is...
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Causative factor in a particular disease
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Idiopathic
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cause of disease is unknown
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iatrogenic is...
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A treatment that causes a disease
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Acute is...
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sudden, short term illness
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Chronic is...
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milder condition developing gradually
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Insidious is...
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gradual progression
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Remission is...
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manifestation of disease subsides
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Exacerbations is...
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increases signs of disease
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Epidemiology is...
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Science of tracking the pattern of the disease
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Incidence is...
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Number of new cases
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Prevalance is...
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number of new AND old cases
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Disease develops when...
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cell structure and function changes
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What causes diseases?
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Viruses, bacteria, genetic problems, structural changes in the cell (causes atrophy, etc)
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Some changes are reversible like...
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Hormonal issues
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Some are irreversible like...
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Something causes changes in (for example) the nucleus and you now have antibodies that you find in patients with autoimmune diseases
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What happens in Atrophy?
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Cells are getting smaller
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What happens in hypertrophy?
What are some examples? Does it always lead to disease? |
- The whole tissue gets larger in size
- Hypertrophy of the heart wall, or bladder (causes gall stones) -Hypertrophy does not always have to lead to diseases, for athletes it’s a good thing. |
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Hyperplasia vs Hypertrophy. What is the difference?
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In hyperplasia the cell NUMBERS are increased, while hypertrophy the cell SIZE increases.
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What is an example of hyperplasia?
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With age you have hyperplasia of the prostate gland.
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What happens in Dysplasia?
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Abnormal cellular growth replaced the normal cells that SHOULD be there.
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What sets Dysplasia apart from other kinds of changes?
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It has the potential to become canercous
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What is Neoplasia?
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When you get some cells replaced by other cells that don’t stick to one place, and they multpliply faster, this is when you get malignancy.
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So which is worse, Dysplasia or Neoplasia?
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Neoplasia is worse cause its already gone bad. Dysplasia has the POTENTIAL to go bad, it has not YET gone bad.
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What is Metaplasia?
What is an example of this? |
Replacing one kind of cell with another kind
When you get a scar. The tissue is replaced. |
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Is Metaplasia cancerous? Does it move?
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Metaplasia does not move, and nor is it cancerous.
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What is keloid?
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Reinforcing tissue. It is scaring tissue that is not the same as the tissue that existed prior to it.
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Why is Metaplasia dangerous?
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Its not dangerous. It's cool.
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How many types of cell damage are there and what are they?
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There are 2 types of cell damage. They are Necrosis and Apoptosis.
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What is Apoptosis?
Give an example. |
- Programmed cell death, natural, nothing bad about it.
-RBC live 120 days, goes to spleen, shrinks, dies, and is recycled. |
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What is Necrosis?
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Damage that occurs in inflammation or infection, where the cell ruptures, and the stuff leaks out.
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What is Ischemia?
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Lack of oxygen.
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How can Ischemia happen? And give examples.
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a) blockage in blood vessels (in the brain is stroke, in the heart is heartache)
b) any kind of anemia (iron defiency, problems with the alveolar, problems with the muscle associated with expatriation and inspiration) |
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Aside of Ischemia, what are the other ways a cell is damaged?
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-Physical damage
-Mechanical damage -Microorganisms -Metabolites, imbalance of fluids and electrolytes -Nutritional deficits |
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How many stages are there for cell damage? What are they?
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2 stages
- Initial cell damage - Loss of function |
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What changes can happen when the cell is dying? What are examples of it?
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- Morphological changes: swelling, rupture of membrane, nucleus disintegrates
-Cell Lysis – where the lysozomal enzymes are resealed into the cytoplasm which causes inflammation. |
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What is Caseous Necrosis?
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TB
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What is Ghon Focus?
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not full blown TB. It is a small infection of the lung that can be treated with medication.
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What is Liquefaction Necrosis?
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A cavity as a result of the macrophages.
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What are the 4 causes inflammation?
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1. Laceration
2. Bacteria/infection 3. Injury 4. Burns |
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In normal physiology, how many defenses do we have? Name them.
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2
Specific and Nonspecific. |
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What are some examples of nonspecific defenses?
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- Skin - stratified epithelial
- Tears - contain enzymes to prevent infection of the tear duct - Saliva - contains enzymes and antibodies. |
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When are specific defenses deployed?
What is an example of specific defenses? |
If nonspecific does not prevent invasion, the specific defenses come into play
Immune System |
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Explain normal capillary exchange.
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So the blood flows from the arteries to the capillaries and gas exchange occurs. As the blood flows, the proteins (water magnets) cannot squeeze out due to being too large. As you squeeze water from the artery side of the capillaries, you leave water behind because the water is attracted to the protein. So every time blood goes through the capillaries, it leaves some water behind as it goes through the capillaries. The excess water is recycled by the Lymphatic System.
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What happens when you have inflammation? Explain the process.
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Once the tissue is damage, the cells release chemicals. These chemicals cause all the blood vessels in that region to dilate to get more macrophages and neutrophils. When the blood vessels dilate so much there is an increase capillary permeability since they don’t have tight junctions. Lots of fluids come out – water, protein, etc. When proteins come out, all the water comes out too.
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What are the local effects of inflammation?
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Redness and Warmth – due to increase blood flow
Swelling – increased capillary permeability Pain – pressure on the nerve endings. Loss of function |
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What is Exudate?
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A collection of fluid formed in the inflamed area.
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What are the different 5 kinds of Exudate?
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Serous – watery (allergic reaction or burns)
Fibrinous – thick and sticky (increases risk of scar tissue) Purulent – thick yellow-green pus (bacterial infection) Abscess – localized pocket of pus Hemorrhagic – blood vessels damaged. |
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What are the systemic effects of inflammation?
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Mild fever
Malaise Fatigue Headache Anorexia |
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What are Pyrogens? What is an example of a Pyrogen?
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They are chemicals that are released by the WBC's that set the body temperature higher.
Interleukin-1 |
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Why do we have fevers?
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Because bacteria needs sugar, irons, etc to survive and they cannot metabolize at higher temperatures.
Also, the higher temperature increases cell metabolism. |
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What does Tylenol do?
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- Pain reliever and fever reduces.
- Not anti-inflam. |
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What does Motrin and Advil work on?
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Histamine, Kinins, and Prostglandins.
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How many kinds of inflammation are there?
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2 kinds: acute and chronic
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What are the three ways that the body heals.
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- The same cells would fix themselves
- You are able to regenerate (stem cells and neighboring cells) - Replaced by scar tissue (fibrosis). |
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What do injured tissues release?
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Histamine, Kinins, and Prostglandins.
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Give the process of injury, inflammatory response. EXCLUDE HEALING.
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First, we have accute inflammation. The body releases chemical mediators like Histamine, Kinins, and Prostaglandins.
These cause vasodialtion of the blood vessels, increase capillary permeability, chemotaxis, and irritation of the nerves. Clots and fibrin mesh form sealing the area off while chemotaxis draws WBC's which via phagocytosis remove cell debris. |
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What is the function of Lymphocytes?
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- They help produce immonoglobins and antibodies (B and T cells).
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What are changes that happen in the blood with inflammation?
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Increased leukocytes, especially neutrophils.
Change in differential count Increases plasma proteins like fibrinogen and prothrombin C-reactive proteins appear Increased ESR |
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What diseases are associated with Chronic Inflammation?
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- Rheumatoid Arthritis
- Hepatitis - SLE |
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What are signs of Chronic Inflammation?
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- Less swelling
- More lymphocytes, macrophages and fibroblasts - More tissue destruction - Granuloma and scar tissue formation |
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Why can you not use Tylenol and Acetaminophen to treat Chronic Inflammation?
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They only reduces fever and pain.
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What do NSAIDs, Advil, and Motrin have in common?
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They are non steroidal drugs.
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What happens with prolonged use of NSAIDs, Advil, and Motrin
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- You get ulceration on your stomach because they work on the prostaglandins via inhibition.
- thinning of the mucus lining. |
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What do Glucocorticoids, like Prednisone do to the immune system?
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They inhibit your Immune System.
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Define:
Resolution Regeneration Replacement |
– minimal tissue damage
– damages tissue still capable of mitosis – fibrosis, replacement by connective tissue |
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What is the process of healing?
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Wound is clean – first intention healing
Minimal gap between edges Blood clot formation Inflammation (about 2 days)- macrophages get rid of pathogens/cell debris Growth of granulation tissue – highly vascular and fragile Nearby epithelial cells undergo mitosis and grow in Fibroblasts are attracted, produce collagen – scar tissue Cytokines released -> cell proliferation -> angiogenesis Collagen fibers crosslink, capillaries decrease Scar tissue -> not normal, functional tissue |
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Give descriptions of second intention healing
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- Healing by second intention -> there is a large break in tissue
- More inflammation - Longer healing time - More scar tissue formed |
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What are adhesions?
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Different parts of the tissue getting stuck together.
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What are characteristics of scar tissue?
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- Nonelastic
- Shrinks over time - Cause shortening or narrowing of structures - Adhesions -Excessive collagen deposit -> keloids |
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What is Stenosis?
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It is narrowing
Example: esophagus after surgery. |
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What are the types of burns?
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Thermal and Nonthermal
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What are the three labels for skin burns?
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Partial thickness, superficial partial thickness, and full thickness burns.
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What is superficial partial thickness burn and an example of it.
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Epidermis alone here burns.
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What is partial-thickness burns?
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Epidermis and part of dermis burns.
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What is Deep partial-thickness burns?
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Epidermis and part of dermis burns.
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What is Full thickness burns?
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All skin layers destroyed.
- Initially painless, later gets very painful - Skin graft required for healing |
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Study this
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What are the effects of burn injury?
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- Shock – hypovolemia
- Respiratory problems (due to eschar) - Pain - Infection- leading to septic shock - Hypermetabolism – need more carbohydrates and proteins |
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Tylenol is an analgesic and anti-pyretic but...
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It does not decrease the anti-inflammatory response.
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Which cells secrete histamine?
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Basophils and Mast Cells
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Which cells are phagocytic?
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Neutrophils, Monocytes and Macrophages
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Which are the effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) but not an effect of acetaminophen?
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anti-inflammatory and platelet inhibition
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What is the meaning of the term diapedesis?
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movement of leukocytes into the interstitial spaces
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What type of exudate is found inside a blister?
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serous
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What are adhesions?
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bands of scar tissue between two normally separate surfaces.
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Which cells are the first to migrate into the interstitial spaces after an injury?
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neutrophils
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What type of cell becomes a macrophage once it migrates into the tissue?
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monocyte
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What type of cell is prevalent in allergic responses?
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eosinophil
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What cells are prevalent chronic inflammations?
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fibroblasts, macrophages and lymphocytes
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What is the second event in the vascular response of inflammation?
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Vasodialation
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What would NOT be elevated during an acute inflammation involving a large area?
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Platelet count
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How do non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease inflammation?
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They decrease production of prostaglandins.
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Can a heart attack induce inflammation?
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Yes
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What is so special about C-Reactive Proteins?
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Its high levels are good indicators for chronic inflammation
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What is the function of histamines?
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promotes vasodialation, blood vessel permeability, and exudate formation
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What is the function of Kinins?
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promotes vasodialation, blood vessel permeability, exudate formation, chemotaxis of leukocytes, promotes neutrophil release of lysozomal enzymes --> generates more kinins and causes pain
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What is the function of prostoglandins?
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vasodilation, increase capillary permeability, fever, sensitizes the blood to the effects of other inflammatory mediators, generates free radicals --> induce pain
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What is healing by first intention?
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When the edges of the cut edges are not too far.
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