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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Depressive disorders accompaniedby… |
high levels of glucocorticoids andlow levels of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine |
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Persisten depressive disorder… |
dysthymia for at least two yearsthat does not meet criteria for major depressive disorder |
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Bipolar and related disorders… |
*have manic or hypomanic episodes *accompanied by high levels ofnorepinephrine and serotonin. They are also highly heritable |
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Bipolar II disorder… |
contains at least one hypomanicepisode and at least one major depressive episode |
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Generalized anxiety disorderduration… |
a disproportionate and persistentworry about many different things for atleast 6 months |
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Agoraphobia… |
a fear of places or situationswhere it is hard for an individual to escape |
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Panic disorder… |
marked by recurrent panic attacks:intense, overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous system activity with noclear stimulus. It may lead to agoraphobia |
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Obsessions… |
Persistent, intrusive thoughts andimpulses |
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Compulsions… |
repetitive tasks that relievetension but cause significant impairment in a person's life |
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Posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD)… |
characterized by intrusionsymptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms |
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dissociative amnesia… |
inability to recall pastexperience without an underlying neurological disorder. In sever forms, it mayinvolve dissociative fungus, a sudden change in location that may involve theassumption of a new identity |
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dissociative identity disorder… |
the occurrence of two or morepersonalities that take control of a person's behavior |
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conversion disorder… |
involves unexplained symptomsaffecting motor or sensory function and is associated with prior trauma |
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Personality disorders (PD)… |
patterns of inflexible,maladaptive behavior that cause distress or impaired functioning in at leasttwo of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, orimpulse control. They occur in three clusters: A (weird), B (wild), and C(worried) |
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Schizotypal PD… |
involves ideas of reference,magical thinking, and eccentricity |
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Schizoid PD… |
involves detachment from socialrelationships and limited motion |
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Histrionic PD… |
involves constant attention-seeking behavior |
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Narcissistic PD… |
involves a grandiose sense ofself-importance and need for admiration |
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Obsessive-compulsive PD… |
involves perfectionism,inflexibility, and preoccupation with rules |
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Alzheimer's disease… |
associated with: 1) genetic factors 2) brain atrophy 3) decreases in acetylcholine 4) senile plaques of beta-amyloid 5) neurofibrillary tangles ofhyperphosphorylated tau protein |
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Parkinson's disease… |
associated with: 1) bradykinesia 2) resting tremor 3) pill-rolling tremor 4) mask-like face 5) cogwheel rigidity 6) shuffling gait 7) there's a decreased production of dopamine by cells in the substantial nigra |
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Cholesterol… |
*Present in large amounts inmembrane and contributes to membrane fluidity and stability *necessary in the synthesis of allsteroids *stabilizes adjacent phospholipidsand occupies space between them *prevents the formation of crystalstructures in the membrane, increasing the fluidity at lower temperatures *at higher temperatures, it limitsmovement of phospholipids within the bilayer, decreasing its fluidity and helpshold the membrane intact |
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Waxes… |
*present in very small amounts inmembrane, if at all. They are most prevalent in plants and function inwaterproofing and defense *extremely hydrophobic *composed of a long-chain fattyacid and a long-chain alcohol which contributes to the high melting point *provides both stability andrigidity within then unipolar tail region only |
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Desmosomes… |
*anchor layers of epithelialtissue together *bind adjacent cells by anchoringto their cytoskeletons *formed by interactions between transmembrane proteins associated withintermediate filaments inside adjacent cells |
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Hemidesmosomes… |
*anchors layers of epithelialtissue together *attaches epithelial cells to underlying structures,especially the basement membrane |
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Osmotic pressure… |
*a colligative property *the pressure applied to a puresolvent to prevent osmosis and is used to express the concentration of thesolution *often better conceptualized as a "sucking" pressure in whicha solution is drawing water in, proportional to its concentration |
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Facilitated diffusion… |
*type of passive transport *uses transport proteins to moveimpermeable solutes across the cell membrane |
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Secondary active transport… |
*coupled transport *uses energy to transportparticles across the membrane; however, there is no direct coupling to ATPhydrolysis. Instead, it harnesses the energy released by one particle going down its electrochemical gradient todrive a different particle up its gradient *two types: symport or antiport |
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Pinocytosis… |
the ingestion of liquid into thecell in vesicles formed from the cell membrane |
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Phagocytosis… |
ingestion of larger, solidmolecules |
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Membrane potential maintained by… |
maintained by the sodium-potassiumpump (primarily) and leak channels (more permeable to potassium ions) |
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Mitochondrial membrane… |
*Double membrane *Differs from the cell membrane *The outer mitochondrial membraneis highly permeable to metabolic molecules and small proteins *The inner membrane doesn’tcontain cholesterol |
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Lipid rafts… |
collections of similar lipids thatserve as attachment points for other biomolecules and can serve roles insignaling |
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Identities… |
*individual components of ourself-concept related to the groups to which we belong *we can have multiple identitiesand they do not always need to be compatible |
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Self-esteem… |
our evaluation of ourselves.Generally, the closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self,the higher our self-esteem will be |
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Self-efficacy… |
the degree to which we seeourselves as being capable at a given skill or in a given situation |
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Self-discrepancy theory… |
Each of us has three selves: 1) actual self 2) ideal self 3) ought self *the closer our three selves are to one another, the higher ourself-esteem or self-worth will be |
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Erikson's stages of development… |
*psychosocial development *stem from conflicts that occurthroughout life *possible to fail at resolving theconflict central to any given stage of development, but this does not mean thatmastery of each stage is required to move onto the next *stages: 1) trust v. mistrust 2) autonomy v. shame & doubt 3) initiative v. guilt 4) industry v. inferiority 5) identity v. role confusion 6) intimacy v. isolation 7) generativity v. stagnation 8) integrity v. despair |
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Kohlberg's stages of development… |
*moral development *describes that approaches ofindividuals to resolving moral dilemmas *believed that we progress throughsix stages divided into three main phases: 1) pre-conventional 2) conventional 3) post-conventional *there's a progression througheach stage. each stage is adopted and then abandoned from the next |
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Kohlberg's pre-conventional phaseof moral development… |
places an emphasis on theconsequences of the moral choice 1) Stage 1: Obedience. Concernedwith avoiding punishment 2) Stage 2: Self-interest(instrumental relativist stage). About gaining rewards |
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Kohlberg's conventional phase ofmoral development… |
*When individuals begin to seethemselves in terms of their relationships to others *Based on understanding andaccepting social rules 3) Stage 3: Conformity. Placesemphasis on the "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a personseeks the approval of others 4) Stage 4: Law and Order.Maintains the social order in the highest regard |
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Kohlberg's post-conventional phaseof moral development… |
*Reasoning is based on abstractprinciples *Describes a level of reasoningthat Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of *Base on social mores, which mayconflict with laws 5) Stage 5: Social contract. Viewsmoral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, withreasoning focused on individual rights 6) Stage 6: Universal humanethics. Reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstractprinciples |
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Vygotsky's development theory… |
*described development oflanguage, culture, and skill *proposed the idea of the zone ofproximal development |
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zone of proximal development… |
*describes those skills that achild has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other (like aparent) to accomplish *ex: riding a bike *idea from Vygotsky |
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Reference group… |
*the group to which we compareourselves *what our self-concept depends on *two individuals with the samequalities might see themselves differently depending on how those qualitiescompare to their reference group |
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Carl Jung's theories onpersonality… |
*Assume a collective unconsciouslinks all humans together *Viewed the personality as beinginfluenced by archetypes |
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Collective unconscious… |
*A powerful system that is sharedamong all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our earlyancestors *It's building blocks are imagesof common experiences, such as having a mother and a father *Carl Jung’s idea |
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Archetypes… |
*Images that have an emotionalelement from the collective unconscious *Important Jungian archetypes: 1) Persona 2) Anima and animus 3) Shadow *Carl Jung’s idea |
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Persona… |
*Jungian archetype *the aspect of our personality wepresent to the world |
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Anima… |
*Jungian archetype *"a man's inner woman" *feminine *describes sex-inappropriate qualities |
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Animus… |
*Jungian archetype *"A woman's inner man" *masculine *describes sex-inappropriatequalities |
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Shadow… |
*Jungian archetypes *unpleasant and sociallyreprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness |
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Jung's dichotomies of personality… |
1) Extraversion vs. introversion 2) Sensing (obtaining objectiveinformation about the world) vs. intuiting (working with informationabstractly) 3) Thinking (using logic andreason) vs. feeling (using a value system or personal beliefs) |
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Alfred Alder's Theories… |
*Distanced himself more fromFreud's theories, claiming that the unconscious is motivated by social ratherthan sexual urges *Inferiority complex: anindividual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority bothphysically and socially *According to Alder, driving forsuperiority drives the personality *The striving enhances thepersonality when it's oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorderwhen it's selfish *Notions of creative self, styleof life, and fictional finalist |
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs… |
Listed in decreasing order ofimportance: 1) Physiological needs (hunger,thirst, warmth) 2) Safety needs 3) Love and Belonging needs 4) Cognitive needs 5) Self-esteem needs 6) Self-actualization |
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Eysenck's identified traits… |
Three main ones: PEN 1) Pyschotiscism (nonconformity) 2) Extraversion (tolerance for socialinteraction and stimulation) 3) Neuroticism (arousal in stressfulsituations) |
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Allport's types of traits… |
1) Cardinal 2) Central 3) Secondary |
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Cardinal trait… |
the traits around which a personorganizes his or her life; not everyone develops a cardinal trait |
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Central trait… |
represent major characteristics ofthe personality |
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Secondary traits… |
more personal characteristics andare limited in occurrence |
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McClelland's traits… |
The need for achievement (N-Ach) |
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Reciprocaldeterminism… |
*People mold their environmentsaccording to their personalities, and those environments in turn shape ourthoughts, feelings, and behaviors *Social cognitive perspective onpersonality |
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Behaviorist perspective onpersonality… |
based on the concept of operantconditioning, holds that personality can be described as the behaviors one haslearned from prior rewards and punishments |
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Androgyny… |
the state of being simultaneouslyvery masculine and very feminine (a gender identity term) |
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Undifferentiated… |
those who achieve low scores onboth masculinity and femininity (a gender identity term) |
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Nationality… |
*Based on political borders *Result of shared history, media,cuisine, and national symbols such as a country's flag *Need not be tied to one'sethnicity or even to legal citizenship |
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Ethnic identity… |
*refers to one's ethnic group inwhich members typically share: 1) a common ancestry 2) cultural heritage 3) language *largely an identity to which weare born |
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Hierarchy of salience… |
*what our identities are organizesinto *We let the situation dictatewhich identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment *the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the roleexpectations of the identities |
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Myers-Briggs Type Inventory(MBTI)… |
*A classic personality test *Labels Jung's 3 dichotomies (Extraversion v. Introversion, Sensing v.Intuiting, Thinking v. Feeling) and afourth- Judging (preferring orderliness) vs. perceiving (preferring spontaneity) |
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Style of Life… |
*The manifestation of the creativeself and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority *The family environment is crucialin molding the person's style of life *Alder's concept |
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Fictional finalism… |
*The notion that an individual ismotivated more by his expectation of the future than be past experiences *Alder's concept |
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Functional autonomy… |
*Behavior continues despitesatisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior *A hunter may have originallyhunted to obtain foot to eat however he may continue even after there's enoughfood simply for the enjoyment of the hunt *Allport's theory |
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Gestalt therapy… |
*Humanistic practice *Practitioners tend to take aholistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person ratherthan reducing him to individual behaviors or drives |
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Sphingomyelins… |
*the major class ofsphingophospholipids and contain a phosphatidylcholine orphosphatidylethanolamine head group *major component of the myelinsheath |
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Glycosphingolipids… |
*attached to sugar moietiesinstead of a phosphate group *cerebrosides have one sugarconnected to sphingosine *globosides have two or moresugars connected to sphingosine |
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Gangliosides… |
*contain oligosaccharides with atleast one termite NANA (silica acid) *"gangly" (most complex structureand functional groups in all directions) |
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Isoprene… |
a 5-carbon molecule |
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Terpenes… |
*odiferous steroid precursors madefrom isoprene *one terpene unit (a monoterpene)contains two isoprene units |
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Steroids… |
*derived from cholesterol *contain 3 cyclohexane rings andone cyclopentane ring *their oxidation state andfunctional groups may vary |
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Prostaglandins… |
*autocrine and paracrine signalingmolecules that regulate cAMP levels *have powerful effects on smoothmuscle contraction, body temperature, the sleep-wake-cycle, fever, and pain |
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Vitamin A… |
*Also named Carotene *Metabolized to retinal for vision *Metabolized to retinoic acidsfor gene expression in epithelial development |
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Vitamin D name… |
*Also named Cholecalciferol *Metabolized to calcitriol in the kidneys andregulates calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in the intestines (increasingcalcium and phosphate reabsorption), promoting bone formation *A deficiency in this vitamincauses rickets |
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Vitamin E… |
*Also named Tocopherols *act as biological antioxidants *their aromatic rings destroy freeradicals, preventing oxidative damage |
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Vitamin K… |
*Also named Phylloquinone and Menaquinones *important for formation of prothrombin, a clotting factor *it performs post translationalmodifications on a number of proteins, creating calcium-binding sites |
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Triacylglycerols (triglycerides)… |
*preferred method of storingenergy for long-term use *contain one glycerol attached to3 fatty acids by ester bonds (the fatty acids all usually vary) *the carbon atoms in lipids aremore reduced that carbohydrates, giving twice as much energy per gram duringoxidation *very hydrophobic, so they are nothydrated by body water and do not carry additional water weight |
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Adipocytes… |
animal cells specifically usedfor storage of large triacylglycerol deposits |
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4 Primary forces that influenceemotion… |
1) instincts 2) arousal 3) drives 4) needs |
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Yerkes-Dodson law… |
shows that performance is optimalat a medium level of arousal |
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Primary drive… |
related to bodily processes |
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Secondary drive… |
stem from learning and includeaccomplishments and emotions |
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Self-determination theory… |
Emphasizes the role of 3 universalneeds: 1) autonomy 2) competence 3) relatedness |
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Incentive theory… |
explains motivation as the desireto pursue rewards and avoid punishments |
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Expectancy-value theory… |
states that the amount ofmotivation for a task is based on the individual's expectation of success andthe amount that success is valued |
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Opponent-process theory… |
explains motivation for drug use:as drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to toleranceand uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms that are the opposite of the drug'seffects |
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Emotion… |
*A state of mind, or feeling, thatis subjectively experienced based on circumstances, mood and relationships *3 components of emotion: 1) cognitive (subjective) 2) behavioral (facial expressionsand body language) 3) physiological (changes in theautonomic nervous system) *There are 7 universal emotions |
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7 universal emotions… |
1) Happiness 2) Sadness 3) Contempt 4) Surprise 5) Fear 6) Disgust 7) Anger |
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James-Lange theory of emotion… |
*nervous system arousal leads tocognitive response in which the emotion is labeled 1) Stimulus leads to physiologicalarousal 2) arousal leads to cognitivelabeling of emotion *requires connection between sympatheticnervous system and the brain *"I must be angry because myskin is hot and my blood pressure is high" |
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion… |
*The simultaneous arousal of thenervous system and cognitive response lead to action 1) Stimulus leads to the physiologicalarousal and feeling of emotion 2) Action is secondary response tostimulus *Thalamus processes sensoryinformation, sends it to cortex and sympathetic nervous system *"I am afraid because I see asnake and my heart is racing... Let me out of here!"*Doesn't explain vagus nerve |
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Schachter-Singer theory… |
(cognitive arousal theory or thetwo-factor theory) *Nervous system arousal andinterpretation of context lead to a cognitive response *Both arousal and labeling basedon environment required to feel an emotion * "I am excited because myheart is racing and everyone else is happy" |
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Limbic system… |
*primary nervous system componentinvolved in experiencing emotion *includes: 1) amygdala 2) thalamus 3) hypothalamus 4) hippocampus 5) prefrontal cortex |
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Amygdala… |
*involved with attention and fear *helps interpret facialexpressions *part of the implicit memorysystem for emotional memory |
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Implicit memory system foremotional memory… |
*Unconscious memory (emotionalmemory) *The storage of the actual feelingsof emotion associated with an event. When experiencing a similar event lateron, these emotions may be retrieved *determines the expression of pastemotions |
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Hippocampus… |
creates long-term explicit(episodic) memories |
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explicit (episodic) memories… |
*the memory of experiencing theactual emotion *more properly considered memoriesabout emotionsthan stored emotions *produces a conscious memory ofthe experience*the "story" of theevent: what happened, where it occurred, who was involved, etc. |
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ventral prefrontal cortex… |
critical for experiencing emotion |
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ventromedial prefrontal cortex… |
involved in controlling emotionalresponses from the amygdala and decision-making |
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Stress appraisal… |
Two stages: 1) primary appraisal: classifyinga potential stressors as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful 2) secondary appraisal: evaluatingif the organism can cope with the stress, based on harm, threat, and challenge |
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eustress… |
*a result of positive conditions *can include life events such asgraduating from college, getting a high score on the MCAT, etc. (while they arepositive, any event requiring a person to change or adapt his/her lifestyleleads to stress) |
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General adaptation syndrome… |
1) Alarm 2) Resistance 3) Exhaustion |
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Isothermal processes… |
*Occur at constant temperature *Constant temperature implies thetotal internal energy of the system (U) is constant (ΔU=0) *Since ΔU = 0, QAddedToSys=WBySys *A hyperbolic curve on a pressure-volume graph |
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Adiabatic processes… |
*Don't exchange heat with theenvironment (Q=0) *Thermal energy of the system isconstant throughout the process *When Q=0, ΔU= -WBySysOR.... ΔU = WOnSys *A hyperbolic curve on a P-V graph |
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Isobaric processes… |
*Occur at constant pressure *A horizontal line on a P-V graph |
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Isochoric processes… |
*Also called isovolumetric processes *Occur at constant volume *Because the gas neither expandsnor compresses, no work is performed in such a process *WBySys=0 so ΔU= Q *A vertical line on a P-V graph |
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State functions… |
*Describe the physical propertiesof an equilibrium state *Path independent *When you're under stress, you feel pressureand dense(ity) and all you want to do iswatch TV and receive HUGS (Temp, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy, entropy) |
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Standard conditions… |
298 K (25 degrees celsius), 1atm,1 M concentrations |
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Fusion (in thermochemistry)… |
melting solid→liquid |
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Vaporization… |
evaporation, boiling liquid → gas *Evaporation happens in allliquids at all temperatures, any liquid will lose some particles to the vaporphase over time *An endothermic process for whichthe heat source is the liquid water *Each time the liquid loses ahigh-energy particle, the temperature of the remaining liquid decreases |
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Condensation… |
gas → liquid *In a covered or closed container,the escaping molecules are trapped above the solution, these molecules exert acountering pressure, which forces the gas back into the liquid phase *Facilitated by lower temperatureor higher pressure *Atmospheric pressure acts on aliquid in a manner similar to that of an actual physical lid |
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Boiling… |
*A specific type of vaporizationthat occurs only under certain conditions *Rapid bubbling of the entireliquid with rapid release of the liquid as gas particles *Can only occur above the boilingpoint of a liquid and involves vaporization through the entire volume of theliquid |
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Sublimation… |
solid → gas |
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Deposition… |
gas → solid |
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Critical point… |
The temperature and pressure abovewhich the liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable *the heat of vaporization is zero |
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Triple point… |
The temperature and pressure atwhich all three phases of matter exist in equilibrium |
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Enthalpy (H)… |
A measure of the potential energyof a system found in intermolecular attractions and chemical bonds |
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Hess's law… |
The total change in potentialenergy of a system (ΔH) is equal to the changes of potential energies of theindividual steps of the process |
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Entropy (S)… |
*Disorder *A measure of the degree to whichenergy has been spread throughout a system or between a system and itssurroundings * S= Qtransfered/T *Entropy is maximized atequilibrium |
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Vapor pressure… |
*Pressure that the gas exerts overthe liquid at equilibrium *Increases as temperatureincreases because more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape intothe gas phase |
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Boiling point… |
The temperature at which the vaporpressure of the liquid equals the ambient (applied or incident) pressure |
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Coffee-cup calorimeter… |
Constant-pressure calorimeter |
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Bomb calorimeter… |
*Constant-volume calorimetry *Measures combustion reactionsindirectly |
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ΔG =… |
= ΔH - TΔS ΔG is temperature dependent when ΔHand ΔS have the same signs *when ΔH and ΔS are positive, thereaction can be spontaneous at high temperatures *when ΔH is positive and ΔS isnegative, the reaction is always non spontaneous at any T *when ΔH is negative and ΔS ispositive, the reaction is always spontaneous at any T *when ΔH and ΔS are negative, thereaction is spontaneous at low temperatures |
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First law of thermodynamicsreaction… |
ΔU = Qadded – Wby sys *A version of the law ofconservation of energy (energy can be transformed from one form to another, butcannot be created or destroyed) |
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Bond enthalpy… |
ΔHrxn0 = ΣΔHbonds broken - ΣΔHbonds created= total energy absorbed - totalenergy released |
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Entropy equation (S=)… |
= Qrev/T |
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Second law of thermodynamics… |
ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings >0 |
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Standard Gibbs free energy fromequilibrium constant… |
ΔGrxn0 = -RTlnKeq |
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Nonstandard Gibbs free energy fromreaction quotient… |
ΔGrxn = ΔGrxn0 +RTlnQ = RTln(Q/Keq) |
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Reversible reactions reaching equilibrium… |
*Eventually reach a state in whichenergy is minimized and entropy is maximized *Chemical equilibria are dynamic |
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Le Chatelier's principle: reacting to a change in pressure and volume |
*increasing pressure on a gaseoussystem (decreasing its volume) will shift reaction toward the side with fewermoles of gas *decreasing pressure on a gaseoussystem (increasing its volume) will shift the reaction toward the side withmore moles of gas |
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Le Chatelier's principle: reacting to a change in temperature… |
*moves to the side that consumesthe heat *increasing temperature of an endothermic reaction (heat is added on the reactant's side) will shift the reaction to the right (toward the products) *decreasing temperature of an endothermic reaction (heat is added on the reactant's side) will shift the reaction to the left (toward the reactants) *increasing the temperature of anexothermic reaction (heat is added on the product's side) will shift the reaction to the left (toward the reactants) decreasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction (heat is added on the product's side) will shift the reaction to the right (toward the products) |
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Kinetic products… |
*Have a higher free energy (G) andlower activation energy than thermodynamic products *Can form at lower temperatures(when less heat is imputed into the system) because the activation energy islower *Sometimes termed "fast"products because they can form more quickly under such conditions |
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Thermodynamic products… |
*Have a lower free energy (G) thanthermodynamic products and are therefore more stable *Have a higher activation energyso they proceed more slowly than the kinetic pathway *The thermodynamic pathway is more spontaneous (more negative ΔG becauseyour product is more stable so lower down) |
