Parasitology

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Astiotrema Turneri

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Phylum: Platyhelminths

Class: Digenea
Sub-class: Plagiorchiidae

Number of hosts: >3

Inhabit the bowels of Cichlidfishes found in Lake Malawii, infectious to humans

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Gyrodactylus spp.

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Phylum: Platyhelminths

CLass: Monogenea

Sub-class: Monopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: >10

Russian dolls!: F1 generations are born pregnant with the F2 generation

Viviparous
No threat to humans~
e.g. G. turnbilli

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Entobdella solae

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Phylum: Platyhelminths

Class: Monogenea

Sub-class: Monopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: 1

No threat to humans

Ectoparasite on sole (flatfish), fish has slippery skin so uses a tent-like attachment mechanism: 2 large haptors raise the roof of the tent, 14 marginal hooks act like tent pegs securing the haptor to the scales & forming a vacuum

Reproduces by leaving spermataphores on the skin of fish for other worms to pick up

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Udonella sp.

Back 4

Phylum: Platyhelminths

CLass: Monogenea
Sub-Class: Monopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: 1

No threat to humans
Ectoparasitc on the parasitic copepod caligus, rather than on fish like most mongeneans!
Has the most simple haptor of all monogeneans, perhaps evidence of a secondary loss of haptor in evolutionary history.

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Oculotrema hippopotami

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Phylum: platyhelminth

Class: Monogenea

Sub-class: Polypisthocotylea

No threat to humans

Only monogenean to infect a mammalian host, attaching to the nictitating membrane of hippo eyes

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Placobdelloides jaegerskioeldi

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Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea

Number of hosts: 1

No threat to humans

Annelid is the same colour as hippo skin possibly as a defense against oxpeckers etc.
Sexually mature leeches are found in the rectum with spermatophores attached to their bodies, spermatphores may not survive outside the rectum, and are never found inside leeches, indicating that reproduction occurs in the hippos anus.

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Enoplocotyle sp.

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Phylum: Platyhelminths
Class: Monogenea
Sub-class: Monoopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: 1
No threat to humans

Lives on moray eels

has the simplest haptor (with hooks) of all monogeneans

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Acanthocotyle lobianchi

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Phylum: Platyhelminths
Class: Monogenea
Sub-class: Monopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: 1
No threat to humans

Lives on dogfish

Strats with a simple hapotor with 2 long hooks and then develops whorls of hooks. acts like Velcro to dogfish denticles.

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Leptocotyle minor

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Phylum: Plathelminths
Class: Monogenea
Sub-class: Monopisthocotylea
Number of hosts: 1
No threat to humans

Lives on the epidermis of dogfish, secreting a sticky substance in order to bind to the host - may have comercial value as an adhesive if is can be artificially synthesized.

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Calicotyle sp.

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Phylum: Platyhelminths

Class: Monogenea
Sub-class: Monoposthocotylea

Number of hosts: >3

No threat to humans
Parasites are limited in size by the extreme environmental conditions they tollerate. Calicotyle overcomes this by having a lobed haptos with a larger surface area allowing it to grow larger than other monogeneans.

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Rajonchocotyle sp.

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Phylum: Platyhelminths

Class: Monogenea

Sub-class: Polyopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: >3
No threat to humans

Has small suckers which can attach to specific gill sections which are also reinforced with bars allowing them to clamp down on host

Lives on dog fish host, also has a little peduncle to act as a safety rope - if it lets go it can grab at the gills as it flies past!

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Diclidophora sp.

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Phylum: Platyhelminths

Class: Monogenea

Sub-class: Polyopisthocotylea

Number of hosts: 1

No threat to humans

Parasite of economically important species: Cod
Has clamps instead of hooks, uses each clamp like a bull-dog clip to attach to individual gill filaments

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Diplozoon paradoxum

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Phylum: platyhelminths

Class: Monogenea

Sub-class: Polyopisthocottylea

Number of hosts: >5

No threat to humans

Found on gills of European cyprinid fishes

During the free-living larval stage, when 2 worms meet they fuse together, even fusing their nervous systems and remain together for the rest of their lives.

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Leucochloridium paradoxum

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Phylum: Trematoda
Class: Platyhelminthes

Number of hosts: 2

No threat to humans

Parasite is ingested by a snail, infects the eyestalks and fills them with larvae. The infected eyestalks have the colouration and wriggle around like worms, attracting birds, the flatworms definitive host.

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Cymothoa exigua

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Order: Isopoda

Sub-phylum: Crustacea

Number of hosts: 1

No threat to humans
Attaches to the buccal cavity of fish then eats and replaces the tongue, feeding on blood and mucus in the mouth

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loa loa

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Phylum: Nematoda
Order: Spiruride
Number of hosts
Humans are at risk

Infects humans through fly bites

Most common in west and central Africa, symptoms include itching, swelling and even brain damage in very unlucky victims.

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Heligmosomoides polygyrus

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Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Chromadorea

Order: Rhabditida

Number of hosts: 1

No threat to humans

Used as a lab model for epidemiology studies, found to be a species complex not just 1 species!

H. polygyrus and H. bakeri

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Polystoma integerrimum

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Phylum: platyhelminthes

Class: Trematoda
Subclass: monogenea
Host: Rana temporia

Lives in the bladder of frogs, synchronises reproduction with that of the host to help ensure transmission.
When host is breeding, hormones induce the parasite to reach sexual maturity, eggs are released, hatch into gyrodactylid larvae, infect mature tadpoles, migrate to adult frog bladder and reach sexual maturity in 3 years.
If parasite infects immature tadpoles it attaches to gills and takes 3 weeks to sexually mature (neotenic development), asexually reporduces and sheds eggs

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Clonorchis sinensis

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Phylum: Platyheminthes

Class: Trematoda
Order: Opisthochiida
Definitive host: Humans
Medical importance - Chinese liver fluke

Common in East Asia as they eat a lot of raw fish
Symptoms: Jaundice, gallstones, liver diseases including liver cancer.
Eggs released in human, passed in urine, hatch into mircidium after being eaten by a snail, sporocyst and redia reproduce asexually, snail consumed by fish where cercaria infect fish, then consumed by humans where they mature into adults and sexually reproduce

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Fasciola hepatica

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Sheep liver fluke

Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Class: Trematoda
Sub-class: digenea

Host: Sheep, cattle, horses, rabbits
Economic importance: estimated £50 million pa loss, can infect humans, persistant problem in south america - non specific

Adult fluke lives in bile ducts, browsing on duct lining - bile ducts thicken and produce excess proline

Eggs shed in faeces and enter water, miracidia hatch and infect snails (Limnea truncatula)
Sporocysts, rediae and cercariae multiply asexually, free swimming cercariae encyst on water plants then eaten by herbivores (or directly consumed by humans e.g. water cress)

In Europe: specific to Limnea truncatula, wont even infect closely related species. On other continents F. hepatica has been introduces with domestic livestock, the host range is broader - host specificity is STILL evolving!

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Schistosoma spp.

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Sub-class: Digenea
Sexually dimorphic - male adult is larger, the female lays in his gynecophoral canal
2nd most prevalent disease in the world, 270 million infected, 800,000 die each year. Also infects livestock
up to 3000 fertilised eggs shed daily

may be asymptomatic in early stages or flu like symptoms. Reinfections can lead to liver damage, rarely, eggs can lodge in the brain/spinal cord and cause seizures, paralysis or spinal cord inflamation.

Eggs shed in human faeces or urine, eggs hatch into miracidia and infect water snails, succesive generations of sporocysts in snails
Free-living cercariae released by snail and injested by humans/ cattle

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Diphylobothrium latum

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Class: cestoda

Order: Pseudophyllidea

Fish tapeworm, 10 million people infected, anemia type symptoms.
Hosts: Humans/other mammalian host, copepod, fish

Inhabits the small intestines of mammalian host, shedding 100's of thousands of eggs daily. can grow from 3 - 30ft and lives for ca. 1 yr.

eggs shed in faeces, embryonate in fresh water, coracidia (round larvae, move by cillia) can live for several days although they lack a digestive tract, infect copepods, hatch into procercoid larvae, copepods are injested by fish and procercoid develops into plerocoid larvae, larger fish eats smaller fish, larger fish eaten by humans tapeworm matures in human (or other mammalian definitive host)

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Taenia solium and Taenia saginata

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Class: cestoda
Order: Cyclophyllidea

Hosts: Humans, cattle (T. saginata), Pigs (T. solium)

Eggs or gravid proglotids shed in faeces, cattle or pigs become infected when eating contaminated vegetation, oncospheres hatch, penetrate intestinal wall and circulate to musculature, oncospheres develope into cysterci in muscle, humans are infected by injesting raw or undercooked meat.

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Echinococcus granulosis

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Phylum: Platyhelmithes
Class: Cestoda
Order: Cyclophyllidea

Hosts: Over 40 different species of intermediate hosts including humans (Canine definitive host)

Adult worm inhabits small intestine, eggs shed in faeces, intermediate host (sheep, goats, swine, etc) ingest eggs, oncosphere hatches and penetrates intestinal wall, hydrated cysts form in liver, lungs etc. - potentially dangerous to remove, fatal if ruptured inside body (Anaphylactic shock). Protoscolex emerges from cyst, scolex attacjes to intestine.

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Ancylostoma duodenale

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Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Secernentea

Order: Strongylida

Hosts: Humans, feed on blood causing anaemia and protein deficiency

Globally distributed 77% prevalence (740 million infections)

Eggs shed in faeces, embryonates, 1st juvenile stage, infective juvenile develops in soil, penetrate human skin, migrate through circulatroy system to lungs, migrate into aveoli then to small intestine via the trachea. Adult worms develop in the small intestine, mate and produce eggs

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Ascaris spp.

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Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Secernentea

Order: Ascaridia

1.27 billion people infected, larvae migrating through the body may cause visceral damage, peritonitis, enlargement of the liver or spleen, toxicity and pneumonia

Adults can cause nutritional deficiency, obstruction of the bowl (especially in children), obstruction of bile or pancreatic ducts

Eggs pass into the environment in faeces and are then transmitted to humans abiotically in dust or biotically through dogs, chickens and cockroaches.

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Dracunculs mediensis

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Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Secernentea

Order: Camallandia

3.5 million human cases (1986) - 16,000 (2004)

Copepod vector, seasonal transmission

Human drinks water containing infected copepods, larvae are released when copepods die, fertilised female worm migrates to surface and forms blister after 1 year, larvae are released into water and female dies, larvae are consumed by a copepod.
In Chad one of four countries where guinea worm is still endemic, the parasite has begun infecting dogs.

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Wuchererua bancrofti

Brugia malayi

Elephantiasis

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Phylum: nematoda
Class: Sercernentea

Order: Spirurida

W. bancrofti: 106 million cases p.a., B. malayi: 12, 500, 000 pa.

Other species: 1.5 million cases. p.a.

Mosquito ingests microfilariae when biting human, microfilariae pass through mosquito into hemocoel and develop into infective juveniles, mosquito transmits infective larvae through wound puncture. Juveniles migrate via lymphatics into regional lymph nodes Adult worms sexually develop in different lymphatic vessels. Adult worms mate and produce microfillariae which migrate to bloodstream.

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Onchocerca spp.

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Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Secernentea

Order: Spirurida

18 million human cases p.a.
Juvenile worms cause immune response as they migrate through tissues leading to intense itching. Blindness also caused by immune response. high familial transmission.

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Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)

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Order: Cuculiformes

Family: Cuculidae

Winter in Africa, coming to Britain to breed in march/april

Different cuckoos show host specificity. specialists e.g. meadow pipit or reed warbler, cuckoos evolved eggs that mimic the hosts

Generalists dunnocks or house sparrows will sit on anything....

Cuckoo chick uses vocal mimicry (Super normal stimulus)

1% of all birds are obligate brood parasites, from 6 families, 6 different evolutionary origins! Globally ditributed.

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Cuckoo catfish (Synodontis multipuncatus)

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Order: Siluriformes

Family: Mochokidae

Only obligate fish brood parasite

Host cichlid female has ca. 50 fertilized eggs in mouth.

Found in lake tanganika

Hosts spawn, female and 1-3 male catfish approach, predate host eggs and release eggs & sperm simultaneously. Female host takes up parasite and own eggs.

Female catfish has only a few eggs per clutch, 1-15% of host female are parasitised.

Parasites hatch first in hosts mouth, absorb their yolk sacs then devour host fry. host will protect the catfish offspring as if they were their own.

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Bitterling (Rhodeus amarus)

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Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Cypriiformes

Brood parasitism or brood symbiosis?

Male guards mussels

Female oviposits into mussels siphon, male fertilises, eggs hatch in 2-3 weeks, 2-3 day old fry released.

Fish gains protection from predation for eggs and fry

Mussel uses that fish as host for its larval offspring the glochidia

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Cuckoo beetles (Atemeles)

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Rove beetles (Atemeles)
Host: Formica and Myrmica spp.

Female chemically suppresses worker ants aggression and gains entry to the nest, then imitates young ants for workers pick her up and take her into nest where she feeds on ant larvae/ pupae and lays her own eggs.

When parasitic beetles hatch they chemically attract host workers and mimic begging behavior of host larvae, gaining food.

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Cuckoo Bumblebees (Psithyrus)

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Order: Hymenoptera

Family: Apidae
Genus: Bombus
Subgenus: Psithyrus

Produce no workers of their own. Cuckoo queen bee uses host workers to rear own parasite Have toughened tegument to wothstand attacks when 1st entering colony & powerful jaws.
Colony eventually accepts the parasite either through chemical manipulation or she becomes coated in the hosts scent
Parasitic queen may drive off the host queen, kill her or live with her.

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Cuckoo ants

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2% of all ant species are interspecific parasites

4 types of ant parasitism:

1) Guest ants: Small colonies live inside host colony; raise own brood but steal/beg host worker food

2) Temporary parasites: parasitic queen replaces the host queen. Relies on host workers in early stages of colony formation, own workers then replace hosts.

3) Permanent parasitism with salve raiding: Parasite queen invades nest and drives off/kills queen and adult workers. RElies on newly hatches hosts as slaves. Parasite workers are a specialised caste (Slave traders), raiding neighboring nests to collect pupae to replenish slave stock.

4) Permanent parasitism without salve raiding: parasite and host queen coexist, host provides continual source of workers. Workerless parasites "Inquilines" contribute nothing to rearing their own young.

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Black headed ducks

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Intraspecific parasitism

Dump eggs in other birds nests and display sneaking mating behavior (much like many bird species)

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Schistosoma haematobium and Schisatosoma japonicium

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Schistosome specificity
Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Class: Trematoda
Subclass: Digenea

S. haematobium is human specific in Africa
S. japnoicium has a wide host range in Asia, can infect any mammal that enters the water!
Both are specialists for their snail intermediate hosts Bulinus for S. haematobium.
Oncomelania for S. japonicium.
Japonicum may be a more ancient species & haemotobium is more phylogenetically isolated from other hosts, may have lost genes allowing it to evade immune response of other hosts

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Swimmers itch

digeneans getting it wrong!

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Invasion of skin by the cercaria of non-human (mostly bird hosts) schistosoma spp. and other digeneans too such as Toxocara canis. Cercaria migrate under superficial layers of skin and die. Dead end transmission!

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Sacculina carcini

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Subphylum: crustacea
Class: Maxillopoda

Parasitic barnacle. Infects green crabs but not others, other species may show scarring but not infection.
Injects itself into the body of a crab, preventing it from moulting, growing, regenerating. digesting and reproducing. The infected crab diverts all of its resources to the parasite and it's offspring
Reduce host fitness BUT castrated hosts live on to consume resources and potentially compete with uninfected counterparts. Host longevity may not be affected and may even be increased by reducing mortality risks e.g. mating and competing

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Plagiorhynchus cylindraceus

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Phylum: Acanthocephala

Gutless adult lives in vertebrate intestine
Eggs released in faeces and ingested by an insect

Infected isopod (pillbug) switches from high humidity and shelter to low humidity exposed sites increasing risk of predation by vertebrate (Starling) host

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Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

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Fungi Ascomycota

Infects Camponotus leonardi ants

Infects ants and makes them specifically align themselves on leaves in order to best disperse fungal spores
100% of ants found on underside of leaves

98% on vein

Most on north side of the plant 25cm from the ground

94-95% humidity, 20-30C

Fungus did NOT develop on transplanted ants

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Dicrocoelium dendriticium

Back 42

Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Plagiorchiida

Infective, embryonated eggs are shed in cow faeces, eggs are then injested by snails, cercariae are released from snail via the respiratory pore in a slime ball. slime balls are consumed by ants, cercariae become metacercariae in ant, one parasite (clone) encysts int he ants brain. Ants clime vegatation at dusk and dawn when large mammals are grazing. Mammal host eats the ant and becomes infected. Parasite matures to adult in the animals liver (Inc. humans) and sheds eggs via the bile duct.

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Hymenoepimecis sp.

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Parasitic wasp
Order: hymenoptera

Infects orb spiders (Plesiometa argyra)

Uninfected spider makes a nice symetrical round web
Infected spider: Wasp paralyses the spider and lays its egg on its abdomen; spider returns to normal behaviour but has blood removed; the night before the juvenile wasp makes its cocoon the spider makes a **** web. and is killed and eaten by the wasp.
Evidence of the extended phenotype? spider is spinning but is controlled by the wasps genes

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Schistocepalus solidus

Back 44

Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Class: Cestoda
Order: Pseudophyllidea

Family: Schistocephalidae

Eggs are shed in bird faeces, hatch into procercoids and are ingested by copepods which and alter their behaviour. copepods are ingested by stickbacks and plerocercoids are released, plerocercoids then alter stickleback behavior. Chances of being eaten by the nest host are increased at each stage by altering host behavior. The brain chemistry of the fish is altered!

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Toxoplasma gondii

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Phylum: Apicomplexa
Transfered from cats to ca. half of the global population. humans are 'dead end hosts' but personalities are still affected.

Infected men and women more likely to feel guilty and insecure. But women more likely to be warm and outgoing whereas men are more likely to be less intelligent. also causes flu like symptoms in adults

Also linked to schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders.

Dangerous to infants and foetus, high parasite burdens in children linked to hyperactivity and lower IQ - NO CURE

Cats shed eggs in faeces (oocysts), eaten by rats/ birds can also be passed on to pigs and humans. Form tissue cycts in rats and birds which are eaten by cats. Causes rats to be attracted to the smell of cat urine.

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Malaria

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Phylum: Apicomplexa
Genus: plasmodium
22% of infected mosquitos has bitten >1 person compared with 10% uninfected mosquitos

Infection doubles humans attractiveness to mosquitos

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tetradonematid nematode

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Birds normally avoid ants and feed on fruit, parasite alters the morphology of the ant to resemble fruit, increasing predation of ants by birds

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Nosema granulosis

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Phylum: Microsporidia (unicellular, ALL parasitic)
Feminises host Gammarus duebeni (males converted to females). Vertical transmission in ova, infect <20% of young hosts.

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Amblyospora californica

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Phylum: Microsporidia

Vertically transmitted via eggs of culex

Male mosquitos are dead end hosts (not blood feeders)

if female copepod ingests dead male infected mosquito -> transmission -> asexual reproduction -> aquatic mosquito larvae injest water bourne spores of microsporidium.

Dimorphic life cycle: Female mosquito transmits via eggs, male mosquito transmits to new hosts.

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Wolbachia clonal

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Bacterium
Order: Rickettsiales

Widespread in invertebrates, >20% of all insect species are infected.

Lived in insects ca. 50 million years, lived in invertebrates fro ca. 100 million years.

Transmitted in cytoplasm of host eggs
Sex manipulation: Kills male insects, turns males into sexually functioning females; induces parthenogenisis (unfertilized eggs can develop into females!)
Killing off male hosts may reduce competition for resources and enhance survival of females, causes highly skewed sex ratios changing host mating system e.g. Acraea butterflies, normally males lek to attrack females but in wolbachia infected populations males are rarer so females lek!

Encarsia formosa (parasitic wasp) even when treated with antibiotics to kill wolbachia, males cannot mate - host reproduction is completely dependent on the parasite!

3 spp. of jewel wasps are unable to hybridize when infected with wolbachia - potential role in insect speciation

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Gyrodactylus salaris

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Phylun: Platyhelminthes

Class: Monogenea

Order: Monoopithocotylea

Gyrodactylids in general are ubiquitous teleost parasites, with no specific transmission stage and reproduce in situ with exponential pop. growth

An introduced pathogen and driver of evolution in East Altlantic salmon in sweden (a comercially important species)

Balticsalmon show a clear pop. decline when infected, Norwegian salmon don't
G. salaris has a altered reproductive performance of different host strains!

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Gyrodactylus turnbulli

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: monogenea
Order: Monoopisthocotylea

Caused marked differences in trinidadian guppies in up and downstream pops. variation in male colour pattern, courtship behavior, life history traits and genetic diversity - in association with predation!
In the upper Aripo there is less genetic diversity and low predation making fish suceptible to parasites.
When female guppies aggregate they are 4x more likely to get infected
When males aggregate they are 10x more likely

Flow rate also changes infection dynamics - low parasite burdens, most marked transsmission at high flow, high parasite burdens transmission is most marked at static flow

regardless of flow, larger fish form larger shoals, and are more likely to die when infected
Parasitism fish are also more vulnerable to predation, showing a slower escape response

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Gyrodactylis bullatarudis

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Monogenea
Order: Monoopisthocotylea

Highly virulent

Generalist
Transmission also via dead hosts (cannibalism)

Commonly infects guppies

Analepsoides (Rivulus) hartii
Fish that migrates over land and commonly shoals with guppies when small
Equal transmission of G. bullatarudis and G. turnbulli from killifish to guppies. Higher rate of transmission of Gb from guppy to killifish

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Toxocara canis

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Phylum: nematoda

Class: Secernentea

Order: Ascaridida

15-25 C 85% humidity takes 2-3 weeks for eggs to develop into infective L2
>30C dessication disrupts eggs shell & ova non-viable
soil aeration is also important
most ova in 0-3cm of topsoil, but spatial distribution increased by inverts e.g. earthworms - mechanical transmission throughout the soil profile, and rainfall
effective protection: worming!

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Siphonaptera

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Class: Insecta
Order: Siphonaptera

Live on both cats and dogs

Fleas feed on humans for up to 3 months but cannot reproduce.
Eggs > Larva > Pupa > Adult

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Dipylidium caninum

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Cestoda
Order: Cyclophyllidea

Hyperparasite -

Cyclophyllidean (4 suckers on scolex)
Larval and adult fleas are intermediate hosts
Flea larvae ingest tapeworm eggs which grow into hooked oncospheres tearing through the larvae gut and into the heamocele, where it develops into a cistocercus. The flea larvae pupates into an adult flea, the flea is eaten by a dog or cat where the cistocercus matures into an adult. After reproduction (proglotids are hermaphriditic and capable of selfing) gravid proglotids are shed out of the anus and eggs are released into the environment.
Can also infect humans (usually children)

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Ancylostoma spp.
Hookworms

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Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea
Order: Rhabditida

Suborder: Strongylida

Ancylostoma caninum
Most common in dogs in the N. Hemisphere

Adult hookworm can shed 30,000 eggs per day
Subsist in moist loamy soil warm temps ideal
Larvae develop in faeces/soil
Can be transmitted by ingestion of infected hosts e.g. rodents and mice or through mothers milk in puppies or via skin penetraton (bore through tissues to blood vessels or lymphatic ducts > lungs > penetrate capillaries through bronchioles, bronchi, and the trachea and into the pharynx > dog coughs & swallows larvae > gut
In humans can cause cutaneous larval migrans in Us 36% of dogs have GI nematodes

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Trichostrongylus tenuis

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Phylum nematoda
Order: Rhabditida

Found in UK
Parasite to red grouse populations, population crash in red grouse avoided by the removal of this parasite!

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Crayfish Plague
Aphanomyces astaci

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Genus: Aphanomyces
Introduced to the UK in 1991 by signal crayfish
White clawed crayfish are immunilogically naive and so the fungus proved fatal

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Rinderpest virus

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Introduced to Africa in 1890
12 years later 90% of game animals were dead.
100% immunologically naive population.

2011 - UN declared the virus to be officially eradicated, only the 2nd disease in history to be fully wiped out, by a cattle vaccination program and although no wilderbeast were vaccinated their numbers increased by 8x

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Avian malaria
P. relictum

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Plasmodium
Introduced to the Hawai'ian islands, where there is a high degree of endimicity.
71 known taxa of endemic hawaiian birds, of which 23 are extinct and 30 of the remaining 48 species and sub-species are listed as endangered or threatened.

1826 - Culex quiquefasciatus introduced
1800's Avian pox virus introduced
1920's - Plasmodium relicum arrives in pet birds

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Myxomatosis
Myoma virus

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Rabbits introduced as a food source in the 1800's
1859 - rabbits had reached plague levels.
1950 - Myxoma virus introduced to immunologically naive population
Population of rabbits dropped from 600 million to 200 million in 10 years.
1995 - Rabbite haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) accidentally introduced.
8 weeks after exposure, 90% of rabbits were wiped out
Wedge tailed eagle - 95% of diet is rabbits - rapid prey species loss leaves no time to adapt to alternative prey.

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Barley yellow dwarf virus

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Spread by aphids - the virus manipulates the plants biochemistry in order to manipulate aphids into spreading infection, discourraging insects from permenantly settling on infected plants and using this forced migration to spread infection. Causes vegetation to smell and taste unpleasant to visiting aphids - Dr John Carr

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Ticks

Ixodes scapularis

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Eggs released in spring > Larvae hatch in summer and are infectious to small mammals/birds > next spring larvae metamorphose into Nymphs which are infectious to large mammals (inc. humans). > Nymphs metamorphose into adults in autumn and release eggs the next spring. (Risk of human infection is greates in late spring and summer).
Ticks can also transmit various diseases such as Ricketts, lyme disease, and protozoan infections .

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Tsetse flies

Glossina spp.

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Adult females feed on blood > reproduce > give birth to a live maggot > maggot pupates > adult fly emerges
Transmit Human African trypanosomiasis

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Mosquito
Culex spp.

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Adults lay rafts of eggs > aquatic larvae emerge > Larvae pupate > terrestrial adults emerge > adult females take blood meals

Notable transmitted pathogens: Malaria, dengue

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Lamprey
Lampetre aryesis

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Up to 90cm in length 'Bore' a hole in the host's flesh
River lamprey (L. aryesi) may kill up to 10% of the Salmon off of coastal british columbia anually.

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Angler fish

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Adapted for deep seas
Have a bioluminscent lure
Sit and wait predator
An extreme case of sexual dimorphism, males are 'parasitic' when they encounter females they bite on and don't let go fusing their organs and eventually becoming little more than a pair of testes.

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Diplostomum sp.
Eye fluke

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Diplostomida
Adult parasite lives within the intestine of a bird > Parasite eggs are released into water in bird faeces > miracidia hatch and penetrate snails > Asexual reproduction occurs inside the snail > Mother sprocyst > Daughter sporocyst > cercaria > cercaria penetrates fish > Metacercaria inhabit the eye and can blind this fish > fish eaten by the definitive bird host.

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PKX
Tetracapsuloides bryosalmoae

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Proliferative kidney disease (PKD)
Seasonal salmonid disease
1920: Unkown myxozoan parasite

1990's: intermediate host found to be a bryzoan

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Sea Lice
Lepeophthitius salmonis - Specialist
Caligus elongatus - generalist

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Copepod crustaceans
Adult > Egg > Naupilus larva > moult > Copepodite larva (Infects new host).
Cost SCottish salmon industry ca. £30 million pa. to contain.
Protected coastal waters and high host densities are ideal conditions for lice
Sea lice can cause death or transmit other diseases. - potentially treated by cleaner wrasse.