Organismal Biology (Barrons Sat Ii)

Front 1

What is the first line of defense?

Back 1

It is a nonspecific defense (barrier that stops pathogens from entering the body).
-skin
-mucous
-cilia
-stomach acid

Front 2

What is the second line of defense?

Back 2

It is meant to limit the spread of invaders that got into the body
-Inflammatory response
-Phagocytes
-Interferons

Front 3

What is the inflammatory response?

Back 3

-type of 2nd line of denfense
-swelling, redness, soreness, & increased temperature in area
-Increased blood supply to the area --> which increases nutrients, oxygen, and white blood cells to fight disease

Front 4

What does Histamine do?

Back 4

It triggers vasodilation (enlargement of blood vessels) which increase blood supply to the area

Front 5

What are phagocytes?

Back 5

-type of 2nd line of defense
-Marcrophages extend pseudopods and engulf a lot of microbes

Front 6

What are interferons?

Back 6

-Chemicals released by the immune system to block against viral infections

Front 7

What is an antigen?

Back 7

Anything that triggers an immune response

Front 8

What is the third line of defense for the human immune system?

Back 8

-It is specific
-Consists of B lymphocytes & T lymphocytes
-Both recognize different specific antigens (germs)

Front 9

How are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes similar?

Back 9

-They originate in the bone marrow.
-Once mature, they circulate in the blood, lymph, and lymphatic tissue(spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and adenoids)

Front 10

How are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes different?

Back 10

-B lymphocytes produce antibodies against a specific antigen in what is called a humoral response
-T lymphocytes fight pathogens by hand-to-hand combat in what is called a cell-mediated response

Front 11

What types of antigens are present in different blood types

Back 11

A - Antigen A
B - Antigen B
O - None
AB - A and B

Front 12

What types of antibodies are present circulating in the plasma for diferent blood types

Back 12

A - antibodies against B
B - antibodies against A
O - antibodies against A & B
AB - no antibodies against A or B

Front 13

Where are antigens present?

Back 13

On the surface of the RBCs

Front 14

Where are antibodies present?

Back 14

Circulating in the plasma

Front 15

What is passive immunity?

Back 15

-Temporary
-Borrowed and do not survive long
-(Ex. maternal antibodies)

Front 16

What is active immunity?

Back 16

-Permenant
-Makes his/her own antibodies after being ill or given immunization or vaccine

Front 17

What is an auto - immune disease?

Back 17

It's the teriible mistake of immune system which produces antibodies which attacks and kills body cells of its own.
Ex: Multiple sclerosis, lupus, arthritis, and juvenile diabetes

Front 18

What is AIDS Virus and how does it affect the body?

Back 18

-Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
-Susceptible to oppurtunistic diseases, infections, and cancers
- the HIV virus attacks helper T- cells
- Uses opposite of typical DNA and the host cell integrates this into own genome

Front 19

What is a retro virus?

Back 19

Once inside a cell, it trasncribes itself in reverse

Front 20

What are plasma cells?

Back 20

Thse fight antigens immediately in what is called the primary immune response

Front 21

What are memory cells?

Back 21

Fight antigens but remain circulating in the blood in small numbers for a lifetime

Front 22

Immunological memory

Back 22

The capacity of the immune system to generate a seconary immune response. It prevents you from getting any specific viral infection, such as chicken pox, more than once

Front 23

What is parthenogenesis?

Back 23

The development of an embryo without fertilization

Front 24

What is parthenogenesis?

Back 24

A process in which the egg develops without being fertilized and the adults that result are monoploid
(honeybees --> male are monoploid while female are diploid)

Front 25

What are the three stages of embryonic development?

Back 25

-Cleavage
-Gastrulation
-Organogenesis

Front 26

What is cleavage?

Back 26

-Rapid mitotic cell division of the zygote that begins right after fertilization
-The cells are dividing so quickly that they have no time to develop in size
-By the end, a fluid - filled ball of cells called a blastula is formed

Front 27

Describe the structure of a blastula

Back 27

-A group of cells
-Individual cells are called blastomeres
-The fluid - filled center is a blastocoel

Front 28

What is gastrulation?

Back 28

-Continuation of the process that began during cleavage
-Involves differentiation
-Rearrangement of the blastula to produce a 3 layered embryo called a gastrula

Front 29

What are the embryonic germ layers of the gastrula?

Back 29

-Ectoderm --> will become the nervous system
-Endoderm --> will form the viscera, (lungs, liver, & digestive organs)
-Mesoderm --> forms the muscle, blood, & bones

Front 30

What is organogenesis?

Back 30

A stage in the embryonic development in which cells continue to differentiate, producing organs from the 3 embryonic germ layers
-Once all the organ systems developed, the embryo increases in size and becomes a fetus

Front 31

What is the cervix and endometrium?

Back 31

Cervix - the mouth of the uterus
Endometrium - lining of the uterus

Front 32

What are the four stages of the Female Menstrual Cycle?

Back 32

-Follicular Phase
-Ovulation
-Luteal Phase
-Menstruation

Front 33

What is the follicular phase?

Back 33

Part of menstrual cycle when tiny cavities (follicles) in the ovaries grow and secrete increasing amounts of estrogens in response to follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH)

Front 34

What is ovulation?

Back 34

Part of the menstrual cycle when the oocyte ruptures out of the ovaries in response to a rapid increase in the luteinizing hormone (LH).

Front 35

What is the luteal phase?

Back 35

Part of the menstrual cycle when the corpus luteum (the cavity of the follicle left behind) forms and secretes estrogen and progesterone that thicken the endometrium (lining) of the uterus.

Front 36

What is menstruation?

Back 36

Part of the menstrual cycle when the lining of the uterus breaks down and is shed

Front 37

What are the memebranes of a bird embryo?

Back 37

-Chorion
-Yolk sac
-Amnion
-Allantois

Front 38

What is a chorion?

Back 38

Lies under the bird egg shell and allows for diffusion of respiratory gases between the outside environment and the inside of the shell

Front 39

What is a yolk sac?

Back 39

It enlcoses the yolk, the food for the growing embryo

Front 40

What is an amnion?

Back 40

In a bird embryo, it encloses the embryo in protective amniotic fluid

Front 41

What is an allantois?

Back 41

-Analogous to the plactenta n mammals
-channel for respiratory gases to pass
-where nitrogenous waste uric acid accumulates

Front 42

Where in the human body does the absorbtion of nutrients occur?

Back 42

After digestion is completed in the duodenum, the nutrients are small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream through the villi and microvilli

Front 43

What are the intestinal enzymes in the human body?

Back 43

-Pancreatic amylases --> digestive starch
-Peptidases like trypsin and chymotrypsin --> break down proteins
-Nucleases --> hydrolyze nucleic acids into nucleotides
-Lipases --> break down fats

Front 44

What is a lacteal?

Back 44

Part of the villus which absorbs fatty acids and glycerol into the lymphatic system

Front 45

What is the major cause of most ulcers?

Back 45

The bacterium Heliobacter pylori is a major a cause of most ulcers, which is located in the pyloric sphincter at the top of the stomach

Front 46

What is the large intestine?

Back 46

-Also called colon
-No digestion occurs here
-3 major digestive functions: egestion, vitamin production, reabsorbtion of water

Front 47

What is egestion?

Back 47

Removal of undigested waste

Front 48

Describe vitamin production in the large intestine

Back 48

-Bacteria symbionts living in the colon produce the B vitamins, vitamin K, and folic acid

Front 49

Describe the reabsorbtion of water in the large intestine?

Back 49

1) Constipation- too much water is reabsorbed from the intestine into the bod
2)Diarrhea- an inadequate amount of water is absorbed back into body

Front 50

How do the pHs of gastric and intestinal enzymes differ?

Back 50

-Gastric enzymes --> pH of 3
-Intestinal enzymes --> pH of 8

Front 51

What is an antibody?

Back 51

-numerous Y -shaped protein molecules which are specialized
-act as primary defense and shut down antigens

Front 52

What is the liver?

Back 52

- Produces bile that breaks down fats.
-pH of 11 (neutralizes acidified food from entering the small intestine)
-Sends bile to gallbadder

Front 53

What are the 5 functions of the liver?

Back 53

1) Produces bile
2) Breaks down & recycles RBCs
3) Produces cholesterol necessary for structure of cell membranes
4) Produces nitrogenous waste urea from protein metabolism
5) Detoxifies blood - removes alcohol & drugs

Front 54

Where does protein digestion begin and end?

Back 54

-Begins in stomach with gastric juice
-Ends in the small intestine

Front 55

What type of muscles do the digestive tract consist of?

Back 55

It consists of smooth muscle and is under the control of the autonomic nervous system

Front 56

What is the pathway of blood through the heart (in 14 steps)

Back 56

1) Right atrium
2) Right atrioventricular or tricuspid valve
3) Right ventricle
4) Pulmonary semilunar valve
5) Pulmonary artery
6) Lungs
7) Pulmonary vein
8) Left atrium
9) Left atrioventricular valve or bicuspid valve
10) Left ventricle
11) Aortic semilunar valve
12) Aorta
13) To all the cells in the body
14) Returns to the heart through the vena cava

Front 57

Which part of the heart pumps blood through the aorta and out to the entire body?

Back 57

The left ventricle pumps blood through the aorta. It has the thickest wall of all the chambers and provides the greatest force

Front 58

How is the breathing rhythm set in the body?

Back 58

-The medulla in the brain sets the breathing rythm by monitoring CO2 levels in the blood and by sensing changes in the pH of the blood.

Front 59

Why do we breath faster?

Back 59

A blood pH lower than 7.4 triggers autonomic nerves from the medulla to increase the breathing rate to rid the body of more CO2

Front 60

What is the purpose of the nose?

Back 60

-To filter, warm, and moisten air

Front 61

What happens when carbon dioxide builds up in the blood?

Back 61

The pH lowers

Front 62

What are red blood cells?

Back 62

-Erthrocytes
-Formed in the bone marrow
When they reach maturity, the nucleus is removed so there is more room for hemoglobin to carry more oxygen
-They carry hemoglobin and oxygen but very little CO2.

Front 63

What is the pacemaker of the heart?

Back 63

The sinoatrial (SA) node. Thsi sets the timing of the contractions of the heart.
-It is influenced by the nervous ssystem, hormones like adrenaline, and the body temperature

Front 64

What is a thrombus?

Back 64

- A clot
-can cause serious damage in the absense of injury

Front 65

What is serum?

Back 65

-Plasma minus clotting factors

Front 66

What is the pathway of normal clot formation?

Back 66

Thromboplastin + Ca --> stimulates Prothrombin --> Thrombin --> Stimulates Fibrinogen --> Fibrin (Clot)

Front 67

How is the largest amount of CO2 carried to the lungs?

Back 67

-Carried by the plasma as the bicarbonate ion
-The ion works as a buffering system that maintains the pH of the blood at 7.4

Front 68

What is the function of valves in veins?

Back 68

They contain valves to help prevent the blood from flowing backward into the veins.

Front 69

What is the saltatory conduction?

Back 69

-"Jumping" type of conduction
-Impulses seem to jump down the axon from node to node increasing the rate at which in reachs the end of the axon

Front 70

What is the threshold potential?

Back 70

The potential at which the voltage - gated channels open

Front 71

What is a synapse?

Back 71

Neuron to neuron junction or neuron to organ junction

Front 72

What is a neurotransmitter?

Back 72

A special chemcial used to pass an impluse from one neuron to the next
(Ex. actylcholine)

Front 73

What is inhibited?

Back 73

Moving away from threshold

Front 74

What is summation?

Back 74

The neuron will take all the stimulatory input and all the inhibitory input and "add them up."

Front 75

What are the sensory neurons?

Back 75

These neurons are involved in sending information to the CNS from the sensory organs of the body

Front 76

What are the motor neurons?

Back 76

These neurons are involved in sending information from the CNS to the organs of the body

Front 77

What are interneurons?

Back 77

-Part of CNS
-Neurons that are completely within the brain and spinal cord.
-Often connect sensory & motor neurons.

Front 78

What is the cerebrum?

Back 78

-Our conscious mind
-Where voluntary actions occur (movement, speech, & problem solving)
-Awareness of sensations

Front 79

What is the cerebellum?

Back 79

-Coordinates mucle movement and balance, so that movement is smooth and coordinated

Front 80

What is the medulla?

Back 80

-Involuntary acts (breathing & blood pressure regulation)

Front 81

What is the hypothalamus?

Back 81

-Maintains body homeostasis
-Monitors hormone levels, electrolyte balance, and temperature

Front 82

What are the 2 subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System?

Back 82

-The somatic nervous system
-The autonomic nervous system

Front 83

What is the somatic nervous system?

Back 83

-Voluntary system
-Controls only skeletal muscles
-Uses acetylcholine (ACH) as a neurotransmitter

Front 84

What is the autonomic nervous system?

Back 84

-Involuntary system
-No conscious control over the organs controlled by this subdivison (ex. heart, digestive organs, blood vessels, & pancreas)
-Divided into sympathetic & parasympathetic.

Front 85

What is the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?

Back 85

-Increases body activity
-"Fight or flight" system
-Prepares body for stress situation such as increasing BP, breath rate, ...
-The primary neurotransmitter is norepinephrine

Front 86

What is the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?

Back 86

-"Resting & digesting" system
-Most active when at rest
-Decreases rate & force of heart beat, BP, breath rate
-The primary neurotransmitter is acetylcholine.

Front 87

What is ganglia?

Back 87

Clusters of nerve cell bodies along the nerve cord

Front 88

What are hormones?

Back 88

Chemicals made by endocrine glands, which are released into the blood stream
-Divided into peptide & steroid hormones

Front 89

What are Peptide hormones?

Back 89

-amino-acid based
-cause effects rapidly
-receptors are outside cell membrane
ex. insulin, prolactin, & glucagon

Front 90

What are Steroid hormones?

Back 90

-Made of cholesterol
-can easily cross membranes (lipids)
-slower effect than peptide
-binds to DNA and changes genes
-ex. aldosterone, estrogen, & testosterone

Front 91

What are target organs?

Back 91

The organs that are affected by a particular hormone

Front 92

What hormones does the anterior pituitary gland make & secrete?

Back 92

-Growth hormone (GH)
-Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
-Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
-Follicle stimlulating hormone (FSH)
-Luteinizing hormone (LH)
-Prolactin

Front 93

What is the growth hormone (GH)?

Back 93

-Targets all tissues & organs and cause them to grow
-In adults, it stimulates the rate at which older cells with newer cells (cell-turnover rate)

Front 94

What is the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

Back 94

-Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones

Front 95

What is the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

Back 95

-Stimulates the adrenal cortex (outer layer of the adrenal gland)

Front 96

What is the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)?

Back 96

-Target organs are the gonads (male & female reproductive organs)
-In female, it stimulates ovaries, causing maturation of ova & the release of estrogen
-In male it stimulates the testes to make sperm

Front 97

What is the Luteinizing hormone (LH)?

Back 97

-Targets the gonads
-Stimulates the ovaries, causing development of a corpus luteum
-In the male it stimulates the testes to make testosterone

Front 98

What is Prolactin?

Back 98

-Released only after child birth
-Stimulates mammary glands to make breast milk

Front 99

What 2 hormones do the posterior pituitary gland secrete?

Back 99

-Oxytocin
-Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Front 100

What is oxytocin?

Back 100

-Causes the uterus to contract during childbirth
-Causes mammary glands to release milk

Front 101

What is the antidiuretic hormone?

Back 101

-Causes the kidneys to retain water. (vasopressin)

Front 102

What is the primary hormone secreted by the corpus luteum?

Back 102

Progesterone