Nutrition Exam 1

Front 1

Differentiate and give examples of carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. What other dietary classifications exist?

Back 1

Carnivore: eat almost exclusively meat. Cats and ferrets.
Omnivores: eat plants and animals. Dogs, humans, pigs, chickens.
Herbivores: eat almost exclusively plants. Cattle, sheep, horses.
Other: insectivores, granivores, frugivores.

Front 2

Differentiate between autoenzymatic digesters and alloenzymatic digesters.

Back 2

Autoenzymatic: produce their own enzymes to digest and absorb nutrients.
Alloenzymatic: relies on the enzymes from microbes in the GI tract to digest and absorb nutrients.

Front 3

Why are autoenzymatic digesters incapable of utilizing energy from cellulose (fiber) while alloenzymatic digesters can?

Back 3

Cellulose consists of beta-linked glucose units, which mammalian enzymes cannot digest. The microbes in alloezymatic digester stomachs breakdown these beta-linkages, allowing the animal to use it for energy.

Front 4

What is fermentation? What are the three subcategories of fermenters?

Back 4

Fermentation is the decomposition and use of foodstuffs by microbes. Animals may be foregut fermenters, or hindgut fermenters (further cecal or colonic or cecal-colonic)

Front 5

Autoenzymatic digestion-the mouth and esophagus

Back 5

Grinds food, creates food bolus, saliva also begins the breakdown of fat (and starch). Dogs and cats lack salivary amylase. Food is then swallowed and transported down the esophagus.

Front 6

Autoenzymatic digesters-the stomach

Back 6

Stores food, macerates food, controls rate of food entry into the duodenum.
Begins digestion by releasing Hydrochloric acid (destroys bacteria, breaks down some proteins and disaccharides), Pepsinogen (converts to pepsin at low pH, digests protein), and Lipase (digests long chain fatty acids)

Front 7

What influences the rate of gastric emptying?

Back 7

Stomach volume, energy content of meal, viscosity, density, particle size of gastric content, body weight, water intake, amount of acid in the duodenum, and diet type.

Front 8

Autoenzymatic digesters-small intestines

Back 8

Location of most enzymatic digestion.
Mucosa secretes secretin and cholecystokinin(CCK) to regulate pancreatic secretions

Front 9

Autoenzymatic digesters-pancreas

Back 9

Secretes:
Bicarbonate-neutralizes pH
Inactive proteases-trypsinogen activated by enterokinase to trypsin, which activates other proteases. Protein digestion.
Lipases-Lipase and procolipase (converted to colipase by trypsin). Forms complex with micelles to aid fat digestion.
Amylase-breaks up large carbohydrate chains, smaller chains are digested by brush border enzymes.

Front 10

Autoenzymatic digesters-gall bladder

Back 10

Releases bile in response to fats. Aids in fat digestion, absorption of fat soluble vitamins, is an alkalinizing agent, and is bacteriacidal. Also serves to excrete waste bilirubin.

Front 11

Why is taurine essential in cats, but not in other species?

Back 11

Bile salts are conjugated with amino acids. Taurine is used preferentially, but most species are capable of using other amino acids. Cats can only use taurine.

Front 12

Autoenzymatid digesters-large intestine

Back 12

Absorbes electrolytes and water. LI microbes may also ferment nutrients that escaped the small intestine-primarily results in the production of short-chain fatty acids, lactate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gas. SCFA's are an important energy source of enterocytes.

Front 13

Alloenzymatic digesters-ruminants

Back 13

Undergo fermentation in the rumen. Converts pyruvic acid to volatile fatty acids, which are utilized as a primary energy source.

Front 14

What are the three types of ruminant feeding strategies?

Back 14

Browsers-eat more digestible plant material, may not require much fermentation and have smaller rumen and reticulum.
Grazers-eat large amounts of high fiber plants. Will have a much larger rumen to accommodate fermentation needs.
Intermediate feeders-both browse and graze. Sheep and goats.

Front 15

What are the disadvantages of hind gut fermentation?

Back 15

Many nutrients (sugars, amino acids, vitamins and minerals) are absorbed in the small intestine, and are not available to support the microbial flora.
The hindgut is less efficient at absorbing volatile fatty acids.
Passage through the hindgut is faster than through the rumen and allows less time for fermentation.

Front 16

What may be the one advantage to hindgut fermentation?

Back 16

It is adapted to lower quality forage, allowing the animal to consume more food to meet protein requirements when eating protein-poor material.

Front 17

How do rabbits and other cecal fermentors compensate for the disadvantages of hind gut fermentation?

Back 17

Coprophagy....eww.
Hindgut selectively passes fiber, and retains non-fibrous materials. When all fiber has passed, the non-fibrous material is excreted, coated in a gelatinous membrane (cecotrope), which is then ingested to allow for absorption of the remaining nutrients in the small intestine.

Front 18

Briefly describe the steps of glucose catabolism.

Back 18

0. Monosaccharides are converted to glucose in the liver.
1. Glycolysis: glucose converted to pyruvate.
2. Pyruvate enters mitochondria, and oxidized to Acetyl coA.
3. Citric acid cycle oxidizes Acetyl coA to CO2.
4. Electron transport chain produces ATP.

Front 19

What are the three fates of glucose in the body?

Back 19

1. Catabolized to produce ATP in peripheral tissues.
2. Stored in the liver and muscle as glycogen.
3. Converted to fatty acids and stored in adipose tissue.

Front 20

When do glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis occur in the body?

Back 20

Glycogenesis: Glucose storage in liver and muscle as glycogen after a carbohydrate containing meal.
Glycogenolysis: Breakdown of glycogen, stimulated by glucogon, epinephrine, and states of fasting.
Gluconeogenesis: Formation of glucose from non-carb substrates (mainly amino acids), in states of extreme/chronic starvation.

Front 21

What are the basic differences between saturated, unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids?

Back 21

Saturated: No double bonds
Unsaturated: One or more double bonds
Polyunsaturated: Two or more double bonds

Front 22

What are the five essential fatty acids? Indicate which are omega-3's and which are omega-6's

Back 22

Omega-3's:
1. ALA
2. EPA
3. DHA
Omega-6's:
1. LA
2. AA (especially in cats)

Front 23

What cofactor is required for transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria, and for fatty acid oxidation?

Back 23

Carnitine

Front 24

What is the process of fat digestion and transport to cells?

Back 24

1. Fats are broken down into free fatty acids and monoglycerides by pancreatic lipase
2. FAs are emulsified by bile salts and absorbed.
3. FAs are reformed into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons (lipoproteins).
4. The chylomicron enters the lymphatics and then circulation.
5. Lipoprotein lipase (on endothelium) converts them back into FAs that are absorbed and used for energy.

Front 25

Describe ketone formation, and what causes it.

Back 25

Ketone formation is the formation of B-hydroxybutyrate and acetone from fats by the liver. This is triggered when glucose METABOLISM is low, eg. Diabetes mellitus, high-fat low-carb diets, and starvation of at least 3-4 days.

Front 26

Define essential amino acids, and Maillard reaction.

Back 26

Essential amino acids are those that cannot be synthesized by the body in sufficient quantities and must be supplied by diet.
Maillard reaction is a non-enzymatic browning reaction in which sugar binds with the free amino group on an amino acid. This degrades protein quality, but is a normal part of diet (think cooked ribs...mmmm....).

Front 27

When given the concentrations of fat, protein, and carbohydrates, be able to calculate the energy of a food using Atwater and modified Atwater factors.

Back 27

Atwater factors (modified):
1. Carbs-4 kcal (3.5 kcal)
2. Protein-4 kcal (3.5 kcal)
3. Fat-9 kcal (8.5 kcal)

Front 28

What are the two equations for calculating resting energy requirements? What is the limitation of the linear equation?

Back 28

Exponential: 70 x Body weight (kg) ^0.75.
Linear: (30 x Body weight (kg)) + 70.
The linear equation is only accurate in animals 6-60 pounds.

Front 29

Water soluble vs. Fat soluble vitamins

Back 29

Water soluble-absorbed by passive diffusion, eliminated in urine.
Fat soluble-absorbed along with food lipids, eliminated in bile/feces.

Front 30

Vitamin B1-Thiaminase

Back 30

Water soluble
Basics: Synthesized by microorganisms and plants. Degraded by thiaminases, increase pH combined with heat, and sulfite food preservatives.
Absorption: in the small intestines
Function: Coenzyme
Primary sources: fish and lean meats
Deficiency: 3 stages-anorexia, neurologic deficits, progressive weakness and death. In ruminants also causes polioencephalomalacia.
Toxicity: super rare, caused by excess supplementation.

Front 31

Vitamin B12-Cobalamin

Back 31

Water soluble
Basics: Made only by certain microorganisms, synthesis requires cobalt.
Absorption: Intrinsic factor combines with B12 in the intestine, binds to receptors in the intestine wall and B12 is absorbed (leaves IF in the intestine).
Function: forms two coenzymes.
Sources: Stored in meat, so any animal product.
Deficiency: causes megaloblastic anemia; other signs are very non-specific. Ruminants become neurologic, photosensitive, and develop muscle leasions.
Toxicity: not reported.

Front 32

Folic acid

Back 32

Water soluble
Basics: closely linked to cobalamin function
Absorption: In the jejunum.
Function: Cofactor
Sources: Green veggies, mushrooms, peanuts, legumes, lentils, fruits.
Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia, non-specific signs. Will cause birth defects if deficient during pregnancy.
Toxicity: none reported.

Front 33

Vitamin C

Back 33

Water soluble
Basics: Most animals synthesize vit C in the liver. Primates, guinea pigs, passiforme birds, and some snakes do not.
Function: Catalyst in biologic reactions. Antioxidant (redox co-factor).
Deficiency: Scurvy-petechial hemorrhages, bleeding, delayed wound healing, skin sloughing.
Toxicity: Over supplementation in species that produce their own can increase the reisk of calcium oxalate uroliths.

Front 34

Vitamin A

Back 34

Fat soluble
Basics: Originates from carotenoids in plants, which are cleaved by B-carotene to vit A. Cats cannot use carotenoid precoursers, must have vit A; dogs can; ferrets can but inefficient.
Absorption: small intestine. Liver is the main storage site for vit A.
Function: Vision, growth, cellular differentiation, morphgenesis, and immune function.
Deficiency: dry eye, skin lesions; night blindness in horses.
Toxicity: Teratogenic changes; Horses and ruminants-bone fragility and coat/skin changes.

Front 35

Vitamin D

Back 35

Fat soluble
Absorption: Either synthesized with UV exposure or absorbed in the small intestine.
Function: Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis (with PTH and calcitonin).
Deficiency: Rickets, lameness
Toxicity: Hypercalcemia, renal failure, tissue calcification.

Front 36

Vitamin E

Back 36

Fat soluble
Absorption: Small intestines.
Function: Antioxidant, prevents free radical damage from PUFAs
Sources: Plant oils, some fruits and veggies (leafy greens).
Deficiency: Muscle weakness; white muscle disease in horses (primarily selenium, but use vit E for treatment).
Toxicity: non-toxic, but interferes with absorption of Vit D and K.

Front 37

Vitamin K

Back 37

Fat solubleGeneral: Must be provided in diet or by microbes. Intestinal microbes of most species meet total requirements.
Absorption: Intestines, Liver is main storage site.
Function: dependant clotting factors, skeletal proteins, and other proteins.
Sources: Green veggies
Deficiency: Prolonged clotting times!
Toxicity: none reported.

Front 38

Macrominerals vs. Microminerals

Back 38

Macrominerals: required in large dietary amounts.
Microminerals: required in trace amounts.

Front 39

Calcium

Back 39

Macromineral
Basics: greatest need during active bone/tooth formation. Highest proportion found in bone.
Absorption: passive diffusion in the jejunum and ileum.
Function: Bone mineralization. Also, blood clotting, nerve conduction, and muscle contraction.
Sources: Dairy, meat, bone meal.
Deficiency: pathological fractures, osteomalacia, rickets.
Toxicity: skeletal abnormalities, tissue calcification.

Front 40

Phosphorus

Back 40

Macromineral
General: second most prevalent mineral in mammals. Highest proportion found in bone.
Absorption: high dietary calcium will decrease phosphorus absorption.
Function: skeletal structural element, needed for all cellular functions requiring ATP.
Sources: high concentration in meat, ubiquitous in most other foods.
Deficiency: poor growth, osteomalacia, rickets.
Toxicity: decreased Calcium absorption; predisposes ruminants to urinary calculi.

Front 41

Selenium

Back 41

Micromineral
General: structural component of selenoproteins.
Absorption: stored in muscle
Function: antioxidant, aids formation of active thyroid hormone.
Sources: plants, esp those grown in high selenium soils.
Deficiency: myopathy, white muscle disease.
Toxicity: Anemia in dogs. Blind staggers/head pressing in horses.

Front 42

Why do dairy calves require larger amounts of colostrum (typically needing supplementation), when beef cattle don't?

Back 42

High producing dairy cows have more dilute milk/colostrum than beef cattle. More must be given to insure transfer of adequate numbers of antibodies.

Front 43

What are the long term effects of failure of passive transfer in cattle?

Back 43

increased morbidity and mortality throughout life, decreased adult production.

Front 44

What are the advantages and disadvantages of feeding whole milk to calves?

Back 44

Advantages: better nutrition than milk replacer; easy to feed waste milk that is not usable for human consumption.
Disadvantages: May not have enough waste milk to feed all calves, diseases may be spread through milk (batch pasturizer can be used to prevent).

Front 45

What are the appropriate percentages of components (protein, fat, fiber) in milk replacer? Ideally, where should components of milk replacer originate?

Back 45

Protein: 20-26%
Fat: 10-20%
Fiber: <0.2%
Components should be of animal origin.
Note: >0.2% fiber suggests plant origin components.

Front 46

Why is target weight and body condition score important in post weaning replacement heifers?

Back 46

Obesity causes early onset of puberty, changing mammary growth dynamics. The rapid phase of mammary growth will start and stop early in the life, leading to an overall decrease in mammary size and production potential.

Front 47

Cattle feed: Forage sources

Back 47

Pasture, ensiled feeds, or dry hay. Also includes cottonseed or soybean hulls.
Plays a role in maintaining rumen health, as well as providing energy (carbs) and protein.

Front 48

Cattle feed: Energy sources (carbs)

Back 48

Cereal grains, forages, byproducts, and added fat-sources.

Front 49

Cattle feed: Protein sources

Back 49

Oil seed meals, legumes, byproduct feeds (whole cotton seed, brewers and distillers grains)

Front 50

What are the advantages of using Total Mixed Rations?

Back 50

Flexibility-each batch is mixed, can feed different mixture to different groups.
Uniformity and consistency-diet doesn't change from batch to batch
Expense-fairly cheap

Front 51

What amount of dry matter intake is appropriate for lactating vs. dry cows?

Back 51

Lactating: 3-4% BW
Dry: 17-2% BW

Front 52

Energy (carb) requirements of sheep and goats.

Back 52

Given in the form of grain.
ONLY NEEDED WHEN:
1. growing
2. cold weather
3. late gestation (last 3rd, last 50 days)
4. lactation, first two weeks
Guidelines: cold weather, 1-2 lb/head/day; late gestation/lactation 1-3 lb/head/day

Front 53

Protein requirements of sheep ang goats.

Back 53

Lambs/kids: 12-14%
Adults: 7-8%
Late gestation: 11%
Lactation: 13-15%
Sources: Alfalfa hay, legume pastures, cotton/soy meal feeds. Creep feeds used for kids.

Front 54

What amount of dry matter intake should be provided for sheep and goats?

Back 54

3-5% body weight.

Front 55

What is an appropriate calcium:phosphorus ratio for sheep and goats?

Back 55

2:1 or 1:1
Calcium is high in alfalfa hay.
Phosphorus is high in grains, low in forage.

Front 56

What is important about copper in sheep?

Back 56

Sheep are very sensitive to copper toxicity. Non-sheep feeds are too high! Feed sheep on sheep specific feeds only!

Front 57

Body condition scoring in sheep and goats.

Back 57

Ideal is 2.5-3.5/5
May be hard to see if wool is heavy.
Goats look skinnier than sheep.

Front 58

Basics of reviving baby sheep and goats.

Back 58

Most common problems are hypothermia and hypoglycemia.
Warm them up. Give IV dextrose. Karo syrup may be given by mouth on the farm to help until vet care can be given.

Front 59

Beef cows
CC: Aggression, downer cows, hyperesthesia, muscle tremors.
History: Feeding non-protein nitrogen/molasses block supplement. Barrels containing supplement blocks are full of water.
PE: Rumen pH 8.5

Back 59

Diagnosis: Urea toxicity.
NPN is primarily NH4, which is converted into NH3 to be absorbed, then converted to urea in the liver. When overdosed, the liver cannot keep up with conversion, excess NH3 builds up and causes toxicity. In this case, excess NPN was ingested when it seeped from the blocks into the water in the barrels.
Treatment: Giving acid will cause the conversion of NH3 to the less absorbable NH4, allowing it to pass through the GI without being absorbed. Vinegar is a good choice.

Front 60

Farmer is feeding the cows left over bagels from Panara. After 4 months with no issues, two cows die suddenly.
PE: pools of blood around nose, and bloody foam in nostrils.

Back 60

Diagnosis: Lactic acidosis, with liver absess and CVCS.
High carb intake->decrease in rumen pH->increase in lactic acid producing bacteria->as pH continues to drop conversion of lactic acid to proprionic acid stops->lactic acid build up->caustic rumenitis->bacteria penetrate rumen wall->liver abscess->Caudal Vena Cava Syndrome.

Front 61

Cattle are being fed moldy corn.
Steer developed neuro signs, and petechia on the mucous membranes.
BW indicated cholestasis and liver dysfunction.

Back 61

Diagnosis: Hepatic Encephalopathy secondary to aflatoxin.

Front 62

Downer cow
History: fed round bale hay with no grain.
PE: BCS of 1, 7 months pregnant, good appetite, normal teeth, musculoskeletal exam WNL.
BW: PCV, BUN, and Albumin all low.

Back 62

Diagnosis: Protein/Calorie Malnutrition; sequela serous atrophy of fat in the bone marrow.
Round bales are usually poorer quality hay; high lignin content decreases digestability.
Serous atrophy of fat occurs in extreme starvation (plus pregnancy=really bad in this case), and primarily targets the bone marrow. This leads to decreased erythropoeisis that rarely reverts.
Treatment: If caught very early, switching to a quality food may cure, but PCV <20 typically indicates irreversible bone marrow loss. In this case, the calf could be aborted as a last ditch effort to save the cow and see if PCV increased.

Front 63

Dairy herd
CC: Development of acute severe lameness-recumbent, stiff gait, cross legs while walking, pain, swelling of coronary band.
History: Supplementing with distillers grain from a local brewery.

Back 63

Diagnosis: Laminitis secondary to rumen acidosis.
Acidosis->endotoxemia->DIC->ischemia of the corium->edema and degenerative changes in the corium->lameness
Tx: Anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs or steroids), Polymixin B (binds endotoxin), Reduce the amount of grain in the diet.
Note: after recovering from laminitis, cattle will have a "hardship groove" in the hoof. If multiple bouts of laminitis occur close together these grooves may alter hoof conformation.

Front 64

Pet goat
CC: Straining with no urination.
History: Free fed grain

Back 64

Diagnosis: Urolithiasis.
Tx: Foley catheter cystostomy, normograde catheterization to flush stones.
Note: retrograde catheterization cannot be done because of urethral diverticulum.

Front 65

Energy sources-pigs

Back 65

Corn is the "gold standard". Other feeds are compared on the basis of metabolizable energy, digestible lysine (atleast 0.8), and available phosphorus.
Particle size: smaller particles increase digestion of feed, and thus profit margin.

Front 66

Dried distillers grain supplement for pigs

Back 66

Should be golden in color.
Protein-26.5% min
Fat-10% min
Moisture-12% max
Fiber-7.5% max
Compared to corn: 110-120% value.
Problems: variability in nutrient content and availability. Must be balanced with other feeds to maintain proper amino acid concentrations.

Front 67

Pigs-barley

Back 67

High in lysine, phosphorus and fiber.
Must be finely ground to overcome fiber, but can reduce palatability

Front 68

Pigs-Milo (sorghum)

Back 68

Almost identical to corn.
Less problems with mycotoxin make it preferable when buying in bulk, or in hot/humid climates.

Front 69

Pigs-Oats

Back 69

High in lysine, but very high in fiber.
Must be finely ground.
No more than 30% diet for grower/finisher pigs, and 10% for lactation.

Front 70

Pigs-Wheat

Back 70

Better than corn, but $$$$.
Only feed that should be course. Fine grinding decreases palatability.

Front 71

Pigs-Molasses

Back 71

Mostly used for flavoring.

Front 72

Pigs-protein requirements

Back 72

Pigs require amino acids, not protein.
Balance should be based on lysine (atleast 0.8).
Soybean is the "gold standard".
Animal protein sources can be cost prohibitive.
Deficiency of amino acids will lead to decreased growth and unthriftiness.

Front 73

Pigs-Calcium phosphorus ratio

Back 73

Ideally 2:1 or 1.5:1
Phosphorus availability is influenced by phytates.
Deficiency leads to decreased growth and lameness.

Front 74

Pigs-Improving feed efficiency

Back 74

Fat addition (caution-rancid fats reduces fat soluble vitamins).
Proper feeder adjustment
Pelleted diet
Fine particle size

Front 75

Swine-vitamin A deficiency and toxicosis

Back 75

Def: Skeletal issues
Tox: Skeletal malformation

Front 76

Swine-vitamin D deficiency and toxicosis

Back 76

Skeletal issues
Def: rickets
Tox: lameness

Front 77

Swine-vitamin E deficiency and toxicosis

Back 77

Def: Weak @ birth, white muscle disease (mulberry heart), death.
Tox: none

Front 78

Swine-vitamin K deficiency and toxicosis

Back 78

Def: Bleeding disorders, pale, common in piglets
Tox: None

Front 79

Swine-Biotin deficiency and toxicosis

Back 79

Def: Skin and hoof problems
Tox: None

Front 80

Swine-Choline deficiency and toxicosis

Back 80

Def: splay legged piglets
Tox: decreased weight in older pigs

Front 81

Swine-Folic Acid deficiency and toxicosis

Back 81

Def: decreased litter size, small piglets, decreased weight gain
Tox: none

Front 82

Swine-Niacin deficiency and toxicosis

Back 82

Def: Dermatitis, hair loss, diarrhea, decreased growth, anemia
Tox: none

Front 83

Swine-Panthothenic acid deficiency and toxicosis

Back 83

Def: "goose stepping", skin issues, decrease growth
Tox: none

Front 84

Swine-Riboflavin deficiency and toxicosis

Back 84

Def: piglet mortality, stillbirths
Tox: none

Front 85

Swine-Thiamine deficiency and toxicosis

Back 85

Def: Flabby heart->death, poor growth.
Tox: none

Front 86

Swine-Vitamin B6 deficiency and toxicosis

Back 86

Def: poor growth, seizures
Tox: none

Front 87

Swine-vitamin B12 deficiency and toxicosis

Back 87

Def: poor growth, dermatitis, skeletal issues
Tox: none

Front 88

Swine-vitamin C deficiency and toxicosis

Back 88

Def: hemorrhage, bleeding disorders
Tox: none
Note: not essential in diet, produced adequately by the body.

Front 89

Swine-Calcium deficiency and toxicosis

Back 89

Def: rickets, skeletal disorders
Tox: tissue mineralization

Front 90

Swine-Chromium deficiency and toxicosis

Back 90

Def: decreased litter size
Tox: Diarrhea, depression, tremors

Front 91

Swine-Copper deficiency and toxicosis

Back 91

Def: anorexia, spontaneous fractures, ataxia, increase still birth
Tox: Anorexia

Front 92

Swine-Iodine deficiency and toxicosis

Back 92

Def: hypothyroidism
Tox: decreased growth

Front 93

Swine-Iron deficiency and toxicosis

Back 93

Def: Anemia, mostly in baby pigs
Tox: decreased growth, convulsions, death, +/-rickets

Front 94

Swine-Manganese deficiency and toxicosis

Back 94

Def: Lameness
Tox: decreased growth, lameness

Front 95

Swine-Phosphorus deficiency and toxicosis

Back 95

Def: rickets, downer sow
Tox: decreased growth

Front 96

Swine-Potassium deficiency and toxicosis

Back 96

Def: decreased growth, poor hair coat
Tox: none

Front 97

Swine-Selenium deficiency and toxicosis

Back 97

Def: white muscle disease
Tox: Hoof/skin issues, muscle issues, death

Front 98

Swine-Salt deficiency and toxicosis

Back 98

Def: decreased growth/repro
Tox: neuro signs

Front 99

Swine-Zinc deficiency and toxicosis

Back 99

Def: Parakaratitis, decreased growth, decreased repro
Tox: Lameness, decreased growth, decreased repro

Front 100

Swine-Carbohydrate deficiency and excess

Back 100

Def: decreased growth, neuro signs (hypoglycemia)
Excess: Obesity, decreased repro

Front 101

Swine-Fat deficiency and excess

Back 101

Def: dermatitis
Excess: Obesity

Front 102

Swine-Protein deficiency and excess

Back 102

Def: Decreased growth, decreased repro
Excess: decreased growth, diarrhea

Front 103

What are the primary factors influencing the feeding of zoo animals?

Back 103

1. History-animals are often fed what was fed at a previous facility, or what has been historically fed to that type of animal at the particular facility.
2. Availability-including regional/seasonal availability, deliverability, storage availability. Also influenced by contracts with a company.
3. Based on model species-eg. large felids are fed similar to domestic felids.
4. Avoid the difficult-if an animal is difficult to feed, it will typically not be kept in a zoo (eg. ant eaters....)
5. Sometimes influenced by nutritional disease, but these are rare in zoo species.

Front 104

Zoo carnivore feeding

Back 104

1. Chunk meat (beef or chicken), +/- vitamin and mineral supplement.
2. Commercially formulated diets exist for some species.
3. Not uncommon for carnivores to be given a fasting day, based on the principle that they do not eat everyday in the wild.

Front 105

Zoo feline nutritional concerns

Back 105

1. Obesity-most common
2. Ca:Phos ratio, in young cats
3. Vitamin A deficiency-chiari like syndrome in lions.

Front 106

Zoo omnivore feeding

Back 106

1. "Base" state in summer; polyphagic in fall; decreased appetite in winter and spring.
2. Example diet-dry "diet" dog food, fruit, veggies, +/-enrichment treats.

Front 107

Zoo omnivore health concerns

Back 107

1. Obesity! eg. wild bears forage, captive bears get fed meals. Not being allowed to hibernate, and better nutrition as young also inc. weight.

Front 108

Zoo herbivore feeding

Back 108

1. Hay, either grass or legume. Primary energy source.
2. Concentrates (formulated to feed with some hay)-primarily as vitamin and mineral source.
3. Pasture or browse.

Front 109

Zoo herbivore health concerns

Back 109

1. Lack of sufficient energy in winter
2. Obesity
3. Protein requirements in breeding females.

Front 110

Nutritional behavior of horses

Back 110

Grazing or browsing most of the time. If meal fed, can lead to destructive behavior because animal is used to chewing all the time.

Front 111

Balance of carbs, protein, and fat in the natural diet of horses.

Back 111

Carbs-80%
Protein-8-12%
Fat-4-6%

Front 112

What percentage of a horse's energy requirement should be provided by forage, grain, and fat?

Back 112

Forage- > 50%, a good quality forage can provide almost all energy requirement with minimal supplementation.
Grains- <50%
Fat- <20%

Front 113

What percent of a horse's diet should be protein for maintenance? Lactation?

Back 113

Maintenance-8-9% protein
Lactation-14-15% protein
Other physiologic states (work, growth, etc) fall somewhere in between.

Front 114

What is the ideal calcium:phosphorous ratio for adult vs growing horses?

Back 114

Mature-1.1:1 to 6:1
Growing-1.1:1 to 3:1

Front 115

What other vitamins and minerals may be supplemented or controlled by diet in the horse?

Back 115

Potassium-important in horses with kyperkalemic periodic paresis
Selenium-toxicity (hoof/skin issues), or deficiency (white muscle disease).
Copper-minimal evidence that it is needed, but toxicity is rare, so supplemented anyway.
Vitamin A & E-should get plenty from fresh forage

Front 116

What are the three types of feed given to horses?

Back 116

Roughage-Pasture and hay; lower energy, higher crude fiber
Concentrates-Usually cereal grain; higher energy, lower crude fiber; used to supplement when energy demand is higher
Complete feeds-Approximately 80:20 forage to concentrates; small particle size may cause colic or lead to boredom destruction.

Front 117

Body condition score of horses.

Back 117

9 point scale, take the average score of 6 locations:
Neck, withers, ribs, behind the shoulder, loin, and tail head.
Accounts for shift in body mass distribution with age.

Front 118

What is the general theme of making feed recommendations for horses?

Back 118

Start with a good quality hay.
Add grain slowly, up to a max of 50%, until good condition.

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What is the reasoning behind using creep feed for foals? When do you start using it and for how long?

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Creep feed is used to supplement energy for foals that cannot be met with mare's milk (occurs at 6-8 weeks of age). Foals are capable of using the higher protein content in creep feeds, more than adults. Start offering at 2-3 weeks of age, at 1 lb per month of age. Typically begin gradual shift to hay starting at 6 months. By 24 months, should be feeding as for adult maintenance.

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What are the most common nutritional problems in horses?

Back 120

Obesity
Insulin Resistance
Developmental Orthopedic Diseaese

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Why is it important to pay attention to the non-structural carbohydrate content in horse hay? When is the best time to harvest hay with this in mind and why?

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Non-structural carbohydrates are a horse's primary energy source, over consumption leads to obesity.
Hay should be harvested between heading and blooming to maximize the dry matter:NSC ratio, while harvesting before protein content begins to drop.

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What can increase NSC in a pasture?

Back 122

Sunny days
Stress
Cool evening temperatures
Quick and rapid drying of cut grass and hay.

Front 123

What are risk factors for developmental orthopedic disease in horses?

Back 123

Rapid growth
Nutritional imbalances
Improper Ca:P ratio (high Ca:low P)

Front 124

Essential fatty acids and amino acids for Psittacine birds.

Back 124

Fatty acids: Linoleic acid, +/-arachidonic acid.
Amino acids: Lysine, methionine, and tryptophan most limiting in the diet, but there are others.

Front 125

General guidelines for feeding Psittacines

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Extruded diets-should be atleast 50% of the diet (up to 80% depending on species).
Nuts and seeds-10% of diet in most species, tree nuts are best.
Fresh fruits and veggies-supplemental depending on species.

Front 126

Common nutritional disorders of Psittacines.

Back 126

Obesity-can cause secondary pododermatitis.
Hypovitaminosis A-squamous metaplasia, blunting of choanal papilla, secondary renal disease.
Hypocalcemia-tremors, seizures, soft-shelled eggs, egg binding.
Iron storage disease-common in certain breeds. Feed lower iron diet.

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Herbivorous reptile feeding

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Hay and grasses
Dark leafy greens
Mixed orange/yellow veggies (finely chopped, must be able to bite it.

Front 128

Omnivorous reptile feeding

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Mixed vegetables
Whole prey-mice, earthworms, crickets, etc.
There are commercial diets, but animal may not recognize it as food.

Front 129

Insectivorous and Carnivorous reptile feeding

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Insectivores-gut loaded or calcium dusted insects
Carnivores-ideally whole adult prey animal, already killed.

Front 130

Nutritional disorders of reptiles

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Anorexia-hard to define, some go months without eating.
Obesity
Metabolic bone disease-fibrous ostrodystrophy
Hypovitaminosis A-primarily affects the eyes.
Gout-due to high dietary protein, common in herbivores.

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Ferret feeding requirements

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Obligate carnivores
30-40% animal based protein
15-30% fat
minimal fiber
Small, frequent feedings. Ferret specific diet is available.

Front 132

Nutritional disorders of ferrets

Back 132

Struvite urolithiasis if on a plant based diet.

Front 133

Rabbit feeding requirements

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Herbivores, hind gut fermenters
Protein: 12-16%
Fat: 2-4%
Crude fiber: >18%
High quality hay ad lib, dark leafy greens, limited fruit/treats.

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Nutritional disorders of rabbits

Back 134

Urolithiasis-very sensitive to excess dietary calcium
Malnutrition if failure to eat cecotrophs

Front 135

Hystricomorph rodent feeding-guinea pigs and chinchillas

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Herbivores, hind gut fermenters
Crude protein: 18-20%
Fiber: 16%
Hay, pelleted feed and fresh veggies

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Nutritional disorders of guinea pigs

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Scurvy-vitamin C deficiency, lameness and bleeding gums. Must have dietary vit C!
Malnutrition if failure to eat cecotrophs

Front 137

Murimorph rodent feeding-rats, mice, hamsters, gerbils

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Omnivores
Crude protein: 17-24%
Fat: 4-11%
Fiber: 2.5-4%
Pelleted feed, seed mix (<10%), veggies and fruit (<10%)

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Sugar glider feeding

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Ominvores
Natural diet includes insects, tree sap/gum, nectar, pollen and small veggies.
Captive diet is a complicated mix.

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Hedgehog feeding

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Natural insectivores, but opportunistic omnivores.
Protein: 30-50%
Fat: 10-20%
Commercial hedgehog diet, gut-loaded or dusted insects, limited fruits and veggies.