Neuroscience Final

Front 1

Fifth and Sixth best selling drugs

Back 1

Abilify and Seroquel; antippsychotics

Front 2

Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia

Back 2

delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate affect, incoherent speech or thought, odd behavior

gain of function

Front 3

Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia

Back 3

affective flattening, alogia, avolition, anhedonia

loss of function

Front 4

affective flattening

Back 4

negative symptom; no emotion

Front 5

alogia

Back 5

negative symptom of Schizophrenia; no speech

Front 6

avolition

Back 6

no motivation; negative symptom of Schizophrenia

Front 7

anhedonia

Back 7

no pleasure; negative symptom of schizophrenia

Front 8

inappropriate affect

Back 8

positive symptom of schizophrenia; inapproriately behaving in regards to emotion; overreacting

Front 9

Dopamine Receptor hypothesis of Schizophrenia Version 1

Back 9

believed excess transmission at dopamine receptors, so blocking receptors could treat psychosis

antipsychotic drugs increase metabolism of dopamine

Front 10

reserpine

Back 10

antipsychotic and anti hypertensive drug

blocks reuptake of dopamine, breaks down vesicles that store dopamine

Front 11

amphetamines

Back 11

increase monoamine levels; can induce psychotic symptoms

Front 12

Downfalls to Dopamine receptor hypothesis Version 1

Back 12

no relation to positive/negative symptoms

no link to genetic and neurodevelopmental deficits

no relation to location of abnormalities in living brain

Front 13

Version 2 Dopamine Receptor Hypothesis

Back 13

dopamine receptors show differential brain distribution

prefrontal hypodopaminergia and subcortical hyperdopaminergia

Front 14

D1

Back 14

dopamine receptor in the cortical region of the brain

Front 15

D2

Back 15

dopamine receptor in the subcortical region of the brain

Front 16

Downfalls of Version 2 hypothesis

Back 16

no relation to positive/negative symptoms

no direct evidence

Front 17

Version 3 Dopamine Receptor Hypothesis

Back 17

striatal dopamine dysregulation

this alters the appraisal of stimuli which induces psychosis

Front 18

NT's linked to Schizophrenia

Back 18

serotonin, glutamate, NMDA receptors

Front 19

PCP and Ketamine

Back 19

anesthetics that induce negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction due to schizophrenia

Front 20

Glutamate Hypothesis for Schizophrenia

Back 20

symptoms might reflect dysfunction or dysregulation of NMDA receptors and neurotransmission

Front 21

Brain damage in Schizophrenia

Back 21

global atrophy of grey matter

ventricular enlargement

alterations in fronto-temporal regions

volume decrease in temporal structures: superior temporal gyrus, and inferior frontal cortex

Front 22

Affective (Mood) Disorders

Back 22

Depression

Mania

Biopolar

Unipolar

Front 23

Neurochemical imbalance theory of depression

Back 23

synthesis and secretion of norepinephrine and serotonin

Front 24

Monoamine theory of depression

Back 24

impairment in central monoaminergic function

serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine disruption

depression associated with underactivity of serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses

Front 25

Meds for monoamine theory

Back 25

agonists of serotonin, norepinephrine, or both

Norepinephrine and serotonin receptors have been found to be more numerous in the brains of deceased clinically depressed individuals (up-regulation)

Front 26

Deficiency of norepinephrine

Back 26

can result in depressed mood

low levels can= depression

NE projects to frontal cortex and limbic hypothalamus

Front 27

Deficiency of serotonin

Back 27

also called 5-HT

Projects to frontal cortex, basla ganglia (limbic regions), and hypothalamus

Front 28

Drugs used to treat Depression (MDD)

Back 28

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Tricyclic antidepressants

selective monoamine-repuptake inhibitors

mood stabilizers

Front 29

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Back 29

Example: Iproniazid (developed for treatment of TB)

Monoamine agonist

increases levels of monoamines by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase (MAO)

Front 30

side effects of monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Back 30

cheese effect: cheese, wine, and other food containing amine tyramine

elevates blood pressure

Front 31

Tricyclic antidepressants

Back 31

Example: Imipramine

Blocks reuptake of 5HT and NE

safer than MAO inhibitors

Front 32

Selective Monoamine-reuptake Inhibitors

Back 32

SSRIs

serotonin agonists

block reuptake of serotonin from synapses

increases activation of serotonin receptors

Other examples: Fluoxetine, Paxil, Zoloft

few side effects

Front 33

Selective Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors

Back 33

SNRIs

Reboxetine: example

Front 34

Wellbutrin

Back 34

blocks reuptake of more than one monoamine NT

Front 35

Sleep Alterations in Depression

Back 35

older antidepressants disrupted REM sleep

some enhance REM sleep

5-HT modulates sleep and wakefulness

Front 36

Pathophysiology of Depression

Back 36

adaptation of plasticity of neural systems

decrease in number of length of branch points of apical dendrites of CA3 neurons in hippocampus

decrease in plasticity in depression and chronic stress

Front 37

Glucocorticoids and Depression

Back 37

increase levels of basal cortisol

corticosteroids influence NT, CORT secretion likely regulated by monoamines

Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex have high levels of CORT receptors

Front 38

HPA axis

Back 38

hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis

associated with glucocorticoids

Hypothalamus secretes CRF (corticotropin releasing factor) which targets the anterior pituitary, which secretes ACTH (adrenocorticatropic hormone) which targets the adrenal cortex and that secretes GCORT

patients with MDD have high levels of CORT

Front 39

Other effects of depression

Back 39

Impairs neuroplasticity

hippocampal volume reduction, HPA axis, and depression link?

Hippocampal atrophy could result i further neuroendocrine dysfunction, and hence a run-away system

Front 40

HPA overactivity

Back 40

leads to increased sympathetic tone, which promotes release of cyto cines from macrophages

Front 41

Kindling hypothesis

Back 41

depressive episodes become more easily triggered over time

as the number of depressive episodes increases, future episodes predicted more by the number of prior episodes rather than life stress

Front 42

Neuropathology seen in Depression

Back 42

abnormalities in prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampus, thalamus, cerebellum, and temporal lobe

Front 43

Prefrontal cortex abnormalities in depression

Back 43

medial PFC size reduced

reduction in number of glial cells

increase in activity posterior orbital PFC, amygdala, and anterior cingulate cortex

Front 44

Treatments for treatment-resistant cases

Back 44

Deep Brain stimulation

Electroconvulsive Therapy

Front 45

Deep Brain stimulation

Back 45

experimental

electrical stimulation of the medial PFC and anterior cingulate

60% showed improvement

Front 46

Electroconvulsive Therapy

Back 46

intentionally triggering a brief seizure

changes neurochemistry

2-3 times a week for a couple of weeks

memory loss right around that event

Front 47

Mood stabilizers

Back 47

antidepressants can trigger bouts of mania, but these do not

Lithium

act on signal transduction mechanism

trigger long-term changes in neuronal signaling patters that account for its prophylactic properties

Front 48

Anxiety Disorders

Back 48

all associated with anxiety and physiological stress reactions

Front 49

symptoms of Anxiety Disorders

Back 49

tachycardia, hypertension, breathing difficulties, nausea, high glucocorticoid levels

Front 50

Etiology

Back 50

genetic component

experiences

Front 51

Anxiolytics (anti-anxiety)

Back 51

Benzodiazepines

Serotonin agonists

Front 52

Benzodiazepines

Back 52

Valium

agonistic action at GABA-A receptors

sedation, ataxia, nausea, withdrawal reaction that induces rebound anxiety

good for short-term use

Front 53

Serotonin agonists

Back 53

Buspirone

Selective agonists effects at 5-HT1A receptor

no ataxia and sedation

Front 54

Anxiety Disorders and Depression

Back 54

show comorbidity

both involve heightened emotional response to stress

SSRIs are often effective against anxiety disorder

Front 55

Neural bases of anxiety disorders

Back 55

possible role of GABAergic and serotonergic transmission

Brain areas involved and affected:
amygdala (heightened activity)
anterior cingulate cortex

Front 56

Reticular theory

Back 56

nervous tissue is a continuous web of unbroken network and information can blow between the this web; Golgi's proposal

Front 57

Neuron Doctrine

Back 57

each neuron is an independent unit, the nervous system is made up of nervous systems

Front 58

Unipolar neuron

Back 58

the cell body is set off from the trunk of the axon

single branch coming from cell body which extends in two directions

find these in touch receptors

sensory receptor

Front 59

Bipolar neuron

Back 59

cell body isn't off set, still has two extensions

important in vision and olfaction

sensory systems

Front 60

multipolar neuron

Back 60

what most neurons of the vertebrate brain are

single axon; many dendrites

Front 61

multipolar interneuron

Back 61

really small axon that has no myelin

found in the spinal cord

point to point communicator

Front 62

dendrites

Back 62

specialized input zones

shorter than axons

many in one neuron

Front 63

axons

Back 63

specialized output zones

range from nonexistent to several meters long

axon hillock present

Front 64

axon hillock

Back 64

where an action potential is initiated

Front 65

synapse

Back 65

at the terminal button; where NT are able to bind to the dendrites

Front 66

presynaptic membrane

Back 66

synaptic vesicles contained in presynaptic axon terminal; contain NT

Front 67

postsynaptic membrane

Back 67

contains receptors for NT

where the soma and the dendrites are

Front 68

axonal transport

Back 68

the process by which the materials and nutrients move across the axon

Front 69

anterograde transport

Back 69

movement of materials from the soma toward the terminal button

kinesin is motor protein involved in this

Functions to supply nerve terminal with necessary components

Front 70

retrograde transport

Back 70

movement of any material from the axon terminal back toward the soma

dymine is the motor protein involved

Front 71

recycling

Back 71

type of retrograde transport

return of "used up" material from the nerve terminal to the soma for degradation or reuse

Front 72

signaling

Back 72

type of retrograde transport

postsynaptic messengers or regulatory substances

terminal button can give back info to the soma about what is going on

Front 73

Oligodendrocytes

Back 73

glia cell

in the CNS

can myelinate multiple axons of multiple cells at one time

faster communication speed because of myelin

Front 74

schwann cells

Back 74

located in the PNS

can only myelinate one part of one cell

Front 75

Astrocytes

Back 75

in the CNS

star-shaped

connect brain to vascular system

buffer ion concentrations in extracellular spaces

involved in NT uptake

Front 76

microglia

Back 76

small glia cells

clean up dead or injured cells in the brain

Front 77

ependymal

Back 77

lines the ventricles of the brain and produces the CSF

Front 78

Golgi staining

Back 78

looks at dendritic spines

more spines means more complexity of information

Front 79

Nissl stain

Back 79

stain cell bodies

can't see as much detail

Front 80

Myelin stain

Back 80

stain myelin

useful to look at axon pathways

Front 81

Electron microscopy

Back 81

get very high resolution

can look at microtubules, synapses, or layers of myelin wrapping

Front 82

anterior

Back 82

also called rostral

front of the nose

Front 83

posterior

Back 83

also called caudal

back of the head

Front 84

dorsal

Back 84

top of the head

Front 85

ventral

Back 85

bottom of the head

Front 86

ipsilateral

Back 86

same side

Front 87

contralateral

Back 87

opposite side

Front 88

bilateral

Back 88

what most structures of the brain are

Front 89

medial

Back 89

towards the center

Front 90

lateral

Back 90

towards the side

Front 91

proximal

Back 91

close to

Front 92

distal

Back 92

away from

Front 93

afferent

Back 93

towards the reference point

towards the brain

Front 94

efferent

Back 94

away from the reference point

away from the brain

Front 95

sagittal cross section

Back 95

lateral sectioning

Front 96

coronal cross section

Back 96

cutting like a loaf of bread

Front 97

horizontal cross section

Back 97

sectioning it horizontally

Front 98

Peripheral Nervous System

Back 98

Contains the somatic nervous system

Front 99

Sensory nerves

Back 99

afferent neurons

Front 100

Motor nerves

Back 100

efferent neurons

Front 101

spinal nerves

Back 101

innovatie musculature within that region

Front 102

ventral roots

Back 102

carry motor information

Front 103

dorsal roots

Back 103

carry sensory information

Front 104

Autonomic nervous system

Back 104

sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

Front 105

Central Nervous system

Back 105

brain and spinal cord

Front 106

gray matter

Back 106

contains interneurons

Front 107

white matter

Back 107

contains axons

Front 108

spinal cord

Back 108

white matter on the outside, grey matter on the inside

central canal contains the CSF

Front 109

The Meninges

Back 109

dura mater

arachnoid

pia mater

Front 110

dura mater

Back 110

outter most; tough tissue of brain and spinal cord

Front 111

arachnoid

Back 111

web-like; contains CSF and arachnoid villa

Front 112

pia mater

Back 112

inner most; delicate

Front 113

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Back 113

contained in the ventricular system

produced by the choroid plexus and ependymal cells

Front 114

Lateral ventricles

Back 114

ventricles 1&2

Front 115

Ventricles

Back 115

all connected to each other. where the CSF is located

Front 116

Hydrocephalus

Back 116

defect in how the CSF leaves the brain, so it builds up. Ventricles enlarge, and the cortical tissue gets smooshed out.

Front 117

Olfactory nerve

Back 117

cranial nerve #1

function: sensory; smell

Front 118

Optic nerve

Back 118

cranial nerve #2

function: sensory; vision

Front 119

oculomotor nerve

Back 119

cranial nerve #3

function: motor and sensory; eye movement and pupillary constriction; sensory signals from certain eye muscles

Front 120

trochlear nerve

Back 120

cranial nerve #4

function: motor and sensory; eye movement; sensory signals from certain eye muscles

Front 121

trigeminal nerve

Back 121

cranial nerve #5

function: sensory and motor; facial sensations; chewing

Front 122

abducens

Back 122

cranial nerve #6

function: motor and sensory; eye movement; sensory signals from certain eye muscles

Front 123

facial nerve

Back 123

cranial nerve #7

function: sensory and motor; taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue

facial expression, secretion of tears, salivation, cranial blood vessel dilation

Front 124

auditory-vestibular nerve

Back 124

cranial nerve #8

function: sensory; audition; sensory signals from the organs of balance in the inner ear

Front 125

Glossopharyngeal nerve

Back 125

cranial nerve #9

function: sensory and motor; taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue; salivation, swallowing

Front 126

Vagus nerve

Back 126

cranial nerve #10

function: sensory and motor; sensations from abdominal and thoracic organs; control over abdominal and thoracic organs and muscles of the throat

Front 127

Spinal Accessory Nerve

Back 127

Cranial nerve #11

function: motor and sensory; movement of neck, shoulders, and head; sensory signals from the muscles of the neck

Front 128

hypoglossal nerve

Back 128

cranial nerve #12

function: motor and sensory; tongue movements; sensory signals from tongue muscles

Front 129

Choroid plexus

Back 129

lines the ventricles and is continuously secreting CSF

constituted by the ependymal cells

Front 130

functions of CSF

Back 130

mechanical stability
chemical transport
removing large molecules
regulation of chemical environment

Front 131

foramen of luschka and foramen of magendia

Back 131

openings in the fourth ventricle where the CSF flows in and out

Front 132

Lumbar puncture

Back 132

spinal needles is inserted in between the 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebrae

taps into central canal

Examines:
proteins
glucose
mononuclear cells
CSF pressure

Front 133

Abnormalities seen in Lumbar puncture

Back 133

blood- brains tumors/ subarachnoid hemorrhage
increased inflammatory cells- syphilis/brain tumors
increased protein- myelin fragments, myelin basic protein

Front 134

internal carotid arteries

Back 134

artery that supplies blood to the brain

Front 135

vertebral artery

Back 135

supplies blood to the brain

Front 136

Circle of Willis

Back 136

where the basilar artery joins the carotid artery in a circular shape

provides a safety mechanism

Front 137

blood brain barrier

Back 137

functions to protect the brain from toxins and infections

can make drug delivery to the brain more difficult

Front 138

Forebrain

Back 138

contains the telencephalon and the diencephalon

Front 139

Midbrain

Back 139

contains the mesencephalon

Front 140

hindbrain and brain stem

Back 140

contains the metencephalon and the myelencephalon

Front 141

cerebral cortex

Back 141

means "bark"

forms the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres

grey matter outside, white matter inside

primarily composed of cell bodies

Front 142

sulci

Back 142

small grooves

Front 143

fissures

Back 143

large grooves

Front 144

longitudinal fissure

Back 144

runs along the two cerebral hemispheres

Front 145

gyri

Back 145

bulges in cortex

Front 146

columnar organization

Back 146

columns are mini processing units

Front 147

paramital neuron

Back 147

located in regions 4 and 5, has one long axon and many basal dendrites

Front 148

Von Economo neuron

Back 148

found in humans, great apes, elephants, and dolphins

related to emotional and social feelings

complex social behavior

Front 149

Frontal lobe

Back 149

anterior to the central sulcus and dorsal-medial to the lateral fissure

includes the primary motor cortex

contains prefrontal cortex

Front 150

prefrontal cortex

Back 150

associated with executive function

Front 151

central sulcus

Back 151

important boundary that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

Front 152

Sylvian fissure (lateral fissure)

Back 152

separates the frontal lobe form the temporal lobe

Front 153

Parietal lobe

Back 153

behind the central sulcus and in front of the occipital lobe, and dorsal-medial to the lateral fissure

includes the primary somatosensory cortex

auditory and visual info

Front 154

temporal lobe

Back 154

below lateral fissure and in front of occipital lobe

includes the primary auditory cortex

Front 155

occipital lobe

Back 155

includes primary visual cortes and secondary visual cortex

below the parietal and temporal lobes

Front 156

Corpus Callosum

Back 156

band of white matter fibers

seen through midsagittal section

very organized

communicates info from one hemisphere to the other

Front 157

anterior commissure

Back 157

toward the front of the brain

Front 158

posterior commissure

Back 158

toward the hindbrain

Front 159

Limbic system

Back 159

associated with emotion

contains the hippocampus, amygdala, olfactory bulbs, and cingulate gyrus

Front 160

hippocampus

Back 160

functions in memory

Front 161

amygdala

Back 161

involved in detection of stimlui that can be perceived as danger or a threat

Front 162

olfacotry bulbs

Back 162

cranial nerve #1

initial input of olfactory stimuli

most primitive sense

Front 163

cingulate gyrus

Back 163

band superior to the corpus callosum

emotion responses

involved in the processing of the info sent by emotions

Front 164

basal ganglia

Back 164

collection of subcortical nuclei that lie just under the anterior aspect of the lateral ventricles

consists of: globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, putamen, and the substantia nigra

Front 165

Diencephalon

Back 165

in the forebrain

contains the thalamus and hypothalamus

contains nuclei that receive sensory info and transmit it to the cortex

sensory relay station

all senses except parts of olfaction go through the thalamus

Front 166

Hypothalamus

Back 166

nuclei involved in integration of species typical behaviors, control of the autonomic nervous system and pituitary

3 f's: feeding, fighting, and sexual behavior

Front 167

Mesencephalon

Back 167

located in the midbrain

contains the tectum and the tegmentum

Front 168

tectum

Back 168

dorsal portion of midbrain

Front 169

superior and inferior colliculi

Back 169

involved in visual and auditory systems; in the tectum

Front 170

superior colliculi

Back 170

involved in visual systems

Front 171

inferior colliculi

Back 171

involved in auditory systems

Front 172

Tegmentum

Back 172

portion of midbrain located under the tectum and contains:

rostral end of reticular formation
perlaqueductal gray
red nucleus
substantia nigra
ventral tegmental area

Front 173

Metencephalon

Back 173

in the hindbrain

contains:
pons
cerebellum

Front 174

pons

Back 174

involved in the control of sleep and arousal

Front 175

cerebellum

Back 175

involved in motor control

timing, tension switching

Front 176

Myelencephalon

Back 176

contains the medulla oblongata

Front 177

medulla oblongata

Back 177

most caudal portion of brain

rostral to spinal cord

contains part of the reticular formation

involved in respiration

Front 178

Neuronal signaling

Back 178

1. receives signal (chemical or physical)
2. signal causes ionic fluctuations in the neuron's plasma membrane
3. creates an electrical current flow in the neuron
4. current flow travels down the axon
5. when current reaches terminal button, NTs are released into synapse

Front 179

Axodendritic synape

Back 179

most common

axons synapse onto dendritic spines of the postsynaptic neuron

Front 180

Types of synapses

Back 180

axon on axons

dendrites on dendrites

axodendritic

Front 181

Membrane Potential

Back 181

the difference in electrical charge from the distribution of positively and negatively charged ions between the inside and outside of a cell

Front 182

Diffusion

Back 182

ions want to flow from an area of high concetration to an area of low concentration

imbalance= concentration gradient

Front 183

selective permeability

Back 183

membrane can be impermeable to both ions

membrane can select for which ion can cross the membrane

Front 184

electrical potential

Back 184

difference in charges across the membrane

Front 185

Resting Membrane Potential

Back 185

neuronal membrane is mostly impermeable; responsible for maintaining the resting potential

selectively permeable (not equally) to K+, Cl-, and Na+

More Na+ on the outside, more K+ on the inside, and more Cl- on the outside

Front 186

Voltage difference

Back 186

difference between the intracellular fluid and the extracellular space

at resting potential it is -70mV

Front 187

Channel

Back 187

passive

doesn't require any active support by the neuron to have things move across

Front 188

Ion pump

Back 188

active

Front 189

Sodium- Potassium Pump

Back 189

uses ATP to move 3 Na+ out and bring in 2 K+

uses a lot of energy

where most of the neurons energy goes to

Front 190

Non-gated channels

Back 190

permit the passage of Na+ in and K+ out. More K+ leaks out than Na+ leaks in because the membrane is more permeable to K+

Front 191

Mechano-sensitive channels

Back 191

affected by distortions in the membrane around it

convert external mechanical forces into signals

Front 192

Voltage-sensitive channels

Back 192

Whether the gate is open/closed is determined by the voltage is around it

Front 193

Ligand-sensitive channels

Back 193

affected by chemical agents

found on dendrites in the postsynaptic cells

Front 194

Graded potentials

Back 194

small voltage fluctuations

restricted to portion of axon where ion concentrations change

Front 195

hyperpolarization

Back 195

due to an efflux of K+ or influx of Cl- voltage inside axon becomes more negative

Front 196

Depolarization

Back 196

due to an influx of Na+, voltage inside axon becomes more positive

Front 197

Threshold

Back 197

about -65mV

Front 198

threshold of excitation

Back 198

the point of voltage that will result in an action potential

Front 199

action potential

Back 199

brief, large reversal in the polarity of an axon's membrane

all sodium voltage gated channels open

intracellular side becomes positive
then reverses again
hyperpolarizes then restores to resting potential

Front 200

Hodgin-Huxley cycle

Back 200

Depolarization of membrane => opens Na+ channels => Na+ flows into neuro=> depolarization of membrane

Front 201

absolute refractory period

Back 201

when it starts to come down to restore itself

membrane hits 40mV, all the Na+ voltage-gated channels close and K+ voltage-gated channels open

Front 202

Myelinated axons

Back 202

nodes of ranvier contain the voltage-gated Na+ channels

allows Na+ to rush in

sodium potential jumps down the length of the axon much faster

Front 203

postsynaptic potentials

Back 203

graded potentials causing a depolarization or hyperpolarization

Front 204

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Back 204

brief depolarization of nueron membrane

more likely to produce action potential

Front 205

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Back 205

brief hyper polarization of neuron membrane

less likely to produce an action potential

Front 206

Integration of PSPs and Generation of an AP

Back 206

One EPSP typically will not cause a neuron to fire need summation

Front 207

integration

Back 207

adding or combining a number of individual signals into one overall signal

Front 208

spatial summation

Back 208

integration of events happening at different places but at the same time

Front 209

temporal summation

Back 209

integration of events happening at different times

Front 210

Loewi's classic experiment

Back 210

have a donor heart and recipient heart

stimulate donor heart and heart rate slows down

removed fluid sample from donor and put in recipient heart

caused the heart rate of recipient heart to slow down

secreted vagusstoff (acetylcholine)

Front 211

Synaptic transmission in 4 steps

Back 211

1. NT synthesized and stored in axon terminal
2. NT release
3. Receptor-site activation
4. NT deactivation

Front 212

Step 1 of synaptic transmission

NT synthesized and stored in axon terminal

Back 212

transporters pump substances across the cell membrane

requires substances acquired from the blood supply

synthesized and packaged all down the axon terminal

Front 213

NT synthesized in soma

Back 213

transported on microtubules to axon terminal (anterograde transport)

Front 214

Step 2: NT release

Back 214

In response to Action potential, NT released across the membrane by exocytosis

Ca2+ channels open

Ca2+ bind to protein calmodulin

complex binds to vesicles, inducing some vesicles to bind to presynaptic membrane

docking complex brings them together and they fuse

Front 215

Step 3: receptor-site activation

Back 215

Nt binds to receptor embedded in postsynaptic membrane

EPSP or IPSP

initiate other chemical reactions that modulate either of the previous effects

Front 216

autoreceptor

Back 216

self-receptor in neural membrane that responds to the transmitter released by the neuron

Front 217

Ionotropic receptors

Back 217

associated with ligand-activated ion channels

fast communication

NT binds and ion channel opens or closes, causing a PSP
Na+ channels are opened, EPSP
K+ channels are opened, IPSP

Front 218

Metabotropic receptors

Back 218

associated with signal proteins and G proteins

NT messenger binds
G protein subunit breaks away
Ion channel opens/ closes OR 2nd messenger is synthesized

slower, longer-lasting

found in learning membrane areas

Front 219

long-term potentiation

Back 219

the neurological changes that happen while learning

Front 220

Quantum

Back 220

quantity that produces a just observable change in postsynaptic potential

Front 221

Number of quanta factors

Back 221

amount of Ca2+ that enters the axon terminal

number of vesicles docked at the membrane

Front 222

Step 4: NT deactivation

Back 222

Reuptake or Enzymatic degradation

Front 223

Reuptake

Back 223

transporter pumps in the presynaptic that bring the NTs back up into the button of the presynaptic neuron; could grab the NT before it binds to receptor

Front 224

Enzymatic degradation

Back 224

deactivating enzyme that is specific to the NT attach and deactivate the NT by breaking it down

ONLY FOR ACETYLCHOLINE

Front 225

Amino Acid NTs

Back 225

usually found at fast-acting directed synapses in the CNS

Glutamate
GABA
Aspartate and glycine

Front 226

Glutamate

Back 226

most widespread excitatory NT in the brain

two types of receptors: AMPA and NMDA

activated by MSG

Front 227

AMPA receptor

Back 227

ionotropic receptor of Glutamate

Front 228

NMDA receptor

Back 228

metabotropic receptor of Glutamate

important in memory

Front 229

GABA

Back 229

widespread inhibitory NT in brain and spinal cord

opens chloride channels and works on K+ channels

Front 230

Glycine

Back 230

widespread in spinal cord

inhibitory NT

lower parts of the brain; hindbrain regions

important in locomotive behavior

if blocked, see continuous contraction

tetnis can block glycine

Front 231

Monoamines

Back 231

found in pathways essential for sensory and motor functions; cognitive functions

not as many

specific and limited neural pathways

have huge effects on cognitive and motor function

Front 232

Catecholamines

Back 232

synthesized from tyrosine

includes:
dopamine
norepinephrine
epinephrine

Front 233

dopamine

Back 233

can produce excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potential

Two main pathways:
mesolimbocortical pathway
mesostriatal pathway

involved in mood regulation

inbalances in schizophrenia

Front 234

mesolimbocortical pathway

Back 234

originates in ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens, cortex, and hippocampus

feeds into limbic system structures

Front 235

mesostriatal pathway

Back 235

substantia nigra to striatum

important in initiation of movement

Front 236

norepinephrine

Back 236

noradrenergic pathways:
locus coeruleus
lateral tegmental area

related in regulation of mood and arousal (CNS)

in the sympathetic nervous system has an excitatory effect

Front 237

Locus coeruleus

Back 237

In the region of the pons to the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cortex.

Involved in alertness and awakeness

Front 238

lateral tegmental area

Back 238

projects to the spinal cord, pons, and cerebellum

Front 239

epinephrine

Back 239

also known as adrenaline

synthesized from norepinephrine; location tends to be in adrenal medulla (adrenal gland)

also a hormone

in brain, it's NT

released from adrenal medulla in response to stress

Front 240

Indolamines

Back 240

synthesized from tryptophan

includes:
serotonin

Front 241

serotonin

Back 241

synthesized by the raphe nuclei

pathways:
projections to hippocampus, spinal cord, cerebellum

mesencephalic seroteonergic cells project to thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cortex

involved in eating, regulation of sleep and arousal, and also involved in regulation of pain and mood.

regulates REM sleep and dreams

LSD acts on serotonin receptors

Front 242

Acethylcholine

Back 242

Acetyl group + choline

Excitatory effect on skeletal muscles

inhibitory effect on muscle fibers of the heart

involved in initiation of REM sleep

Pathways:
peduculopontine
basal forebrain

only NT destroyed by enzyme

Receptors:
nicotinic
muscarinic

Front 243

Peduculopontine pathway

Back 243

cholinergic pathway in brain

nucleus and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus

Front 244

Basal Forebrain pathway

Back 244

cholinergic pathway in brain

nucleus basalis, medial septal nucleus, and nucleus of diagonal band

Front 245

nicotinic receptor

Back 245

acteylcholinergic receptor

ionotropic, excitatory

muscle fibers only

Front 246

muscarinic receptor

Back 246

acetylcholinergic receptor

metabotropic, excitatory or inhibitory

slower and longer lasting

CNS contains mostly muscarinic receptors

Front 247

Unconventional NTs

Back 247

soluble gases
Endocannabinoids

Front 248

soluble gases

Back 248

unconventional NT

nitric oxide and carbon monoxide

retrograde transmission

diffuse through cell walls

Front 249

endocannabinoids

Back 249

anandamide is one of the two known

Front 250

Neuropeptides

Back 250

large molecules

Substance P, Neuropeptide Y

Endorphins

Endogenous opioids

Front 251

Substance P

Back 251

involved in pain reception

Front 252

Neuropeptide Y

Back 252

involved in circadian rhythm and eating patterns

Front 253

Endogenous opioids

Back 253

body's natural pain relievers

produce analgesia

Front 254

mass action

Back 254

whole brain is involved in all functions

Front 255

localization of function

Back 255

means specific areas of the brain were involved in certain functions

Front 256

Broca's area

Back 256

third convolution of the left frontal lobe

Front 257

Neuropsychological testing of humans

Back 257

very time intensive

Front 258

Finger tapping frequency

Back 258

motor tasks test

used in parkinson disease

Front 259

peg board

Back 259

insert the pegs and then told to retrieve them out and it is timed. Then do it with other hand.

Motor task test

used for Parkinson's

Front 260

Sequential finger learning

Back 260

used for Parkinson's

motor task test

Front 261

WAIS

Back 261

intelligence test

memory, language, language lateralization

Front 262

Wisconsin card sort task

Back 262

memory (short term/long term, elicit/implicit)
language
frontal lobe function
people with frontal lobe lesions adapt poorly to rule changes in this test

Front 263

Open-field test

Back 263

three measures of emotionality:
inactivity
thigmotaxis (don't venture from the walls of the enclosure- hesitant to go into open space)
defecation (number of bowels)

Front 264

Aggression and defense analysis of species-common behavior

Back 264

predatory aggression
maternal aggression
sexual aggression

Front 265

Sexual behavior: analysis of species-common behavior

Back 265

Female:
lordosis
lordosis quotient: proportion of mounts that produce lordosis

Males:
number of mounts to intermission
number of intermissions to ejaculation
time to reinitiate mounting after ejaculation

Front 266

Static Imaging Techniques

Back 266

CT
MRI

Front 267

CT (computerized tomography)

Back 267

Narrow x-ray beam passed through the brain at many different angles

Images combined to create 3D image of brain

Not good resolution, a bit fuzzy

Not used for research purposes

more rapidly triage patients requiring emergency surgery

Front 268

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Back 268

hydrogen atoms behave like spinning bar magnets in the presence of magnetic field

non ionizing radiation

density differences in hydrogen atoms in different regions

in magnetic field, hydrogen atoms line up in parallel

radio pulses applied

structural MRI

preferred in brain tumors and infection

Front 269

Dynamic Brain Imaging

Back 269

PET
fMRI
Resting State fMRI
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Front 270

PET

Back 270

positron emision tomography

small amount of radioactively labeled substance injected into subject

active areas of the brain use more blood and thus have more radioactive labels

look at distribution of what areas are more active than the others in the brain

Front 271

fMRI

Back 271

function MRI

increases in functional activity of brain, increase in blood flow to those regions

Blood oxygen level dependent

Temporal resolution may not be very accurate compared to structural MRI

must be motionless and alert

no radiation

measures changes in brain activity in more or less real time compared to PET

Front 272

Resting state MRI

Back 272

mesures brain activity when you are at rest

Shows high levels of brain activity when you are not task engaged, but when you become task engaged, see a decrease in this.

Front 273

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Back 273

becoming one of the most important research tools

Front 274

stereotaxic surgery

Back 274

means by which experimental devices are precisely positioned in the depths of the brain. An atlas is required to provide directions to the target site and an instrument for getting there.


place an experimental device in the brain in a precise and accurate location
can administer drug
can inject a chemical that can cause a lesion

Front 275

Three principles of the sensorimotor function

Back 275

1. Hierarchically organized
2. Motor output is guided by sensory input
3. Learning changes the nature and locus of sensorimotor control

Front 276

Functional segregation

Back 276

each level of the hierarchy tends to be composed of different neural structures, each of which performs a different function

Front 277

Ballistic movements

Back 277

brief, all-or-none, high speed movements

aren't influenced by sensory feedback

Front 278

proprioception

Back 278

knowing where your arms and legs are and being aware of surroundings

Front 279

Proprioceptive disorder

Back 279

no movement is automatic. Have to think every little step through in order to move

Front 280

Initial stages of motor learning

Back 280

each individual response is under conscious control

Front 281

After practicing motor learning

Back 281

responses become organized into continuous integrated sequences of action

Front 282

Hierarchy

Back 282

1. Association cortex
2. Secondary motor Cortex
3. primary motor cortex
4. brain stem nuclei
5. spinal motor circuits

Front 283

Association cortex

Back 283

contains the posterior parietal association cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex

Front 284

parietal association cortex

Back 284

integrates info about body part location and external objects

receives visual, auditory, and somatosensory info from visual cortex auditory cortex, and somatosensory cortex

directs behavior by providing spatial info and directing attention

Outputs:
motor cortex
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
secondary motor cortex
frontal eye field

conscious intention and motor awareness arise from increased parietal activity BEFORE movement execution

Front 285

frontal eye field

Back 285

small area of prefrontal cortex that controls eye movements

Front 286

apraxia

Back 286

disorder of voluntary movement

only evident when instructed to perform an action

damage to the left posterior parietal cortex

Front 287

contralateral neglect

Back 287

unable to respond to stimuli contralateral to the side of the lesion

seen with large lesions on the right

Front 288

Dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex

Back 288

input: posterior parietal cortex
output: secondary motor cortex, primary motor cortex, and frontal eye field

evaluation of external stimuli and initiation of voluntary reactions

Front 289

Secondary Motor Cortex

Back 289

Input: association cortex

areas included:
Supplementary motor area (SMA and preSMA)
premotor area
cingulate motor areas

output: primary motor cortex

involved in programming patterns of movements in response to input from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

active when imagining/planning movements

Front 290

Primary Motor Cortex

Back 290

Located in precentral gyrus of frontal lobe

Major point of convergence of cortical sensorimotor signals

Major point of departure of signals from cortex

somatotopic- more cortex devoted to body parts

organized

motor humunculus

Function: initiating body movements

Front 291

Motor humunculus

Back 291

control of hands

Front 292

stereognosis

Back 292

recognizing by touch

interplay of sensory and motor systems

Front 293

PMC lesions

Back 293

disrupt ability to move one body part independently of another

Front 294

astereognosia

Back 294

not being able to move hands

Front 295

Brain Stem Motor Nuclei

Back 295

controls muscles of head and neck

contains:
midbrain
pons
caudal pons
ponto-medullary junction
medulla
cervical cord
reticular formation

Front 296

reticular formation

Back 296

In medulla and pons:
important in modulation respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure

In rostral pons and midbrains:
critical for maintenance of consciousness

Front 297

reticular nuclei

Back 297

important for mediating eye movement

Front 298

Spinal motoneurons

Back 298

All muscles outside of head and neck

sends commands to spinal cord => muscles

pathways:
2 dorsolateral:
corticospinal
corticorubrospinal
2 ventromedial:
corticospinal
cortico-brainstem-spinal tract

Front 299

Corticospinal pathway

Back 299

the direct pathway for dorsolateral and ventromedial pathways of the spinal motoneurons

Front 300

corticorubrospinal

Back 300

indirect dorsolateral pathway of spinal motoneurons

Front 301

cortico-brainstem-spinal tract

Back 301

indirect ventromedial pathway of the spinal motoneurons

Front 302

Cerebellum

Back 302

input:
primary and secondary motor cortex
brain stem nuclei
somatosensory and vestibular systems

involved in fine-tuning and motor learning

Front 303

layers of the cerebellum

Back 303

molecular layer
purkinje cell layer
granular layer

Front 304

molecular layer of the cerebellum

Back 304

outter most

axons for the granular cells; few cell bodies

dendrites of purkinje cells

Front 305

purkinje cell layer

Back 305

middle layer

output cells

output of the cerebellum

Front 306

granular layer

Back 306

inner most layer of cerebellum

dense cell bodies

processing cells- most processing done here

Front 307

Cerebellar loops

Back 307

prefrontal loop
motor loop

Front 308

prefrontal loop of cerebellum

Back 308

dentate nucleus=> prefrontal regions of cortex => pontine nucleus => cerebellar cortex

Front 309

pontine nucleus

Back 309

part of the pons involved in motor activity

Front 310

dentate nucleus

Back 310

within cerebellar hemisphere

Front 311

damage to cerebellum

Back 311

movement deficits of timing, force, range, and direction

impairment of equilibrium during walking

deficits in voluntary eye movement

problems in motor learning

Front 312

Basal Ganglia

Back 312

collection of nuclei

receives cortical input and send output back via thalamus

modulate motor output and cognitive functions

involved in parkinson's, Huntington's, OCD, ADHD, and schizophrenia

Front 313

brake hypothesis

Back 313

puts on the brake or releases the break

example: sitting down

regulated by basal ganglia

Front 314

Direct pathway of basal ganglia

Back 314

Glutamatergic excitation from cortex to neostriatum

then GABAergic inhibition from neostriatum to GPi

Front 315

Substantia nigra

Back 315

SNpr and SNpc

Front 316

SNpr

Back 316

substantia nigra pars reticulate

eye movements

Front 317

SNpc

Back 317

substantia nigra pars compacta

large DA-containing cells

Front 318

Parkinson's Disease

Back 318

resting tremor that's lost during intended movements
difficulty initiating movements

60% neuron loss

DA neurons degenerate

loss DA results in decrease in striatal activity, so less inhibition of GP

increasing GP reduces firing of thalamus, which decreases excitatory input to motor cortex

results in hypokinesis

Front 319

hypokinesis

Back 319

diminished motor function

Front 320

MPPP

Back 320

super demerol

found through teenagers doing drug that came in with parkisonian symptoms

synthetic opioid; like heroid

Front 321

MPTP

Back 321

converted to MPP+ by monoamine oxidase

MPP+ is toxic to DA neurons of substantia nigra

Front 322

Riluzole

Back 322

blocks nMDA receptors

Front 323

Baclofen

Back 323

eases the pain of muscles spasms

Front 324

Cerebellar ataxia

Back 324

difficulty with eye movements

can't complete standard sobriety tests

balance is off

Front 325

Indirect pathway of Basal Ganglia

Back 325

cortex=> neostriatum => globus pallidus external => subthalamic nucleus => globus pallidus internal => thalamus => cortex

Globus pallidus inhibited then wil not inhibit subthalamic nucleus; inhibits thalamus so not excitation of cortex

GABAergic inhibition from striatum to GPe
GPe inhibited => subthalmic nucleus has glutamatergic excitation to GPi
thalamus inhibited so no excitation of cortex

Front 326

Huntington's chorea

Back 326

spontaneous, disruptive movements, uncontrolled

inherited, progressive neurodegenerative disorder

genetic mutation in coding for "Huntington" protein

striatal neurons projecting to and inhibiting GPe degenerate

GPe isn't inhibited, so it fires. then inhibits subthalamic nucleus from exciting GPi, which then fires less. Thalamus not inhibited by GPi and fires

Results in thalamus exciting motor cortex => hyperkinesia

Front 327

hyperkinesia

Back 327

uncontrollable spontaneous movement

Front 328

Plasticity of the brain

Back 328

changeable; ability to adapt to experience

Front 329

Neurogenesis

Back 329

growth of new neurons; occurs in adults as well; does decline with age

Front 330

Phases of development

Back 330

1. induction of neural plate
2. neural proliferation
3. migration and aggregation
4. axon growth and synapse formation
5. neuron death and synapse rearrangement
6. synaptogenesis
7. myelination

Front 331

Induction of neural plate

Back 331

A path of tissue on the dorsal surface of embryo becomes the neural plate

development induced by chemical signals from mesoderm

visible three weeks after conception

neural plate cells= embryonic stem cells

neural tube closes at anterior end first

Front 332

18 days of development

Back 332

neural plate develops

tall, columnar cells develop, get thickened neural plate

Front 333

Day 21 of development

Back 333

neural groove becomes present

Front 334

Day 24 of development

Back 334

neural tube fuses

Front 335

Neural crest cells

Back 335

come from neural plate; neural plate cells that escaped

become the neurons of the PNS

Front 336

anterior end of neural tube

Back 336

becomes brain

cells proliferate much faster here than posterior end

Front 337

posterior end of neural tube

Back 337

becomes spinal cord

Front 338

spina bifida

Back 338

some of the vertebrae overlying the spinal cord aren't fully formed; remain unfused and open

folic acid during pregnancy best way to prevent

Front 339

Neural tube

Back 339

becomes the CNS

Front 340

neural cavity

Back 340

becomes the ventricles of the brain and central canal of spinal cord

Front 341

Poliferation of Neurons and Glia

Back 341

2nd stage of development

occurs in the ventricular zone, next to neural cavity

Front 342

Migration

Back 342

Part of 3rd stage of development

Migrating cells are immature; lack axons and dendrites

Two types of migration:
radial migration
tangential migration

Methods of migration:
somal
glial-mediated migration

Front 343

radial migration

Back 343

toward the outer wall of the tube

Front 344

tangential migration

Back 344

parallel to the tube wall

Front 345

Somal migration

Back 345

extension develops that leads migration, cell body flows

think snail

Front 346

Glial-mediated migration

Back 346

cell moves along a radial glial network

Front 347

radial glia

Back 347

form guide wires; network

Front 348

Aggregation

Back 348

part of 3rd stage of development

Cells align themselves with other cells and form structures

Gap junctions pass cytoplasm between cells

Front 349

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Back 349

aid in migration and aggregation

recognize and adhere to molecules on other cells

Front 350

Axon Growth

Back 350

part of 4th stage of development

axons and dendrites differentiate

extensions emerge from growth cones at tips of axons and dendrites

Front 351

filopodia

Back 351

finger extensions coming from the growth cone

Front 352

Lamelipodium

Back 352

at the base of the growth cone

extensions that can help direct the developing axon in a specific direction

Front 353

Chemoaffinity hypothesis

Back 353

For axon growth

target cells are releasing some sort of chemical that attract the developing growth cone to it

target cells also release chemical repellents to keep other growth cones away

uses chemoattractants and chemorepellents

Front 354

Bowe Print hypothesis

Back 354

for axon growth

each neuron is built with internal blue print on where to go

Front 355

Topographic gradient hypothesis

Back 355

for axon growth

keeping spatial relationships with neighbors

two intersecting signal gradients (ephrins)

Front 356

Synapse formation

Back 356

part of 4th stage of development

depends on presence of glial cells (astrocytes)

high levels of cholesterol are needed

chemical signal exchange between pre and postsynaptic neurons is needed

Front 357

synaptogenesis

Back 357

6th stage of development

synapses form rapidly on dendrites and dendritic spines

spines proliferate after birth, connections affected by experience

Front 358

Determinants of Neuron Survival

Back 358

produce more neurons than we need

two conditions:
must form synapse with target cell and receive a neurotrophin from that cell

must be stimulated to release NT into synapse

Front 359

pruning

Back 359

producing more neurons than we need

Front 360

Neuron death and synapse rearrangement

Back 360

5th stage of development

Front 361

apoptosis

Back 361

programmed cell death that occurs when synapses receive little neurotrophins

Front 362

necrosis

Back 362

passive cell death

Front 363

synapse rearrangement

Back 363

space left after apoptosis is filed by sprouting axon terminals of surviving neurons

leads to increased selectivity of transmission

occurs caudal to rostral

prefrontal cortex is last

Front 364

Myelination

Back 364

final stage in development

occurs about 24 weeks postconception

sensory regions myelinate before motor regions

continues throughout life

spinal cord, hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

Front 365

Adult neurogenesis

Back 365

declines with age

declines in dentate gyrus of hippocampus from old age

Front 366

Early life stress effects on developing brain

Back 366

Amygdala
overexcitation
alteration of GABA receptors
Hippocampus
decreased size
decreased neurogenesis

Front 367

Phenylketonuria

Back 367

hereditary disorder of protein metabolism

lacks enzyme to metabolize phenylalanine (amino acid in food)

phenylalanine builds up and becomes toxic

Front 368

Down Syndrome

Back 368

extra chromosome 21

impaired synaptogenesis

degeneration of branching out of dendrites

Front 369

Fragile X syndrome

Back 369

more common in males

Fragile X Gene= FMR1; prone to breaking

FMRP protein dysfunction

abnormal dendritic spines

Front 370

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Back 370

Neurodevelopmental disorder

social impairment
communication problems
abnormal behavioral movements
decreased area of corpus callosum
fewer neurons in amygdala but increased activity when looking at faces

more common in males

brain develops more slowly

overgrowth of gray matter

Front 371

Fusiform face area

Back 371

gyrus in the temporal lobe
decrease in activity
recognition of faces

Front 372

catgraphs syndrome

Back 372

can't tell who anybody's face is

Front 373

"Wiring up"

Back 373

child brain development

synapse formation and rearrangement, myelination, wiring and rewiring, getting things ready

Front 374

Betz cell

Back 374

motor cortex

#s decline around 50 years, many gone by 80 years

large neuron in cortical layers 4 and 5

associated with descending motor information

Front 375

Inferior olive

Back 375

unchanged
located on medulla
associated with and located within the auditory system

Front 376

Shrinkage in brain aging

Back 376

frontal cortex
hippocampus
cerebellum
striatum
dementia and alzheimer's

sulci widen

corpus callosum area decreases

Front 377

Dementia with Lewy bodies

Back 377

progressive cognitive decline

pronounced fluctuations in alertness and attention

recurrent visual hallucinations

parkinsonian motor symptoms

Front 378

Lewy Body

Back 378

circular deposit of protein

alpha-synuclein protein

Front 379

Frontotemporal dementia

Back 379

severely disrupts personality and social skills

damages anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, temporal lobe, and frontal insula

widened sulci

often misdiagnosed as Alheimer's disease

von Economo neurons are targeted

Front 380

Alzheimer's disease

Back 380

Mild or Moderate
hippocampus shrinks
initial cortical atrophy in parietal and temporal areas first then frontal lobe

Autopsy shows:
extensive neural degeneration
tauopathy
amyloid beta plaques

acetylcholine levels low

Front 381

Mild AD

Back 381

mild memory problems for new events and new info
increased difficulty thinking of words
if noticed by other people, considered minor

Front 382

Moderate AD

Back 382

other people will notice
anxiety, depression, paranoia
spatial difficulty
problems with math and organization
difficulty understanding time, date, and place

Front 383

Pittsburgh Blue (PiB)

Back 383

PET technique
imaging compound
tries to determine accumulation of beta amyloid plaques

Front 384

Medications for AD

Back 384

Cholinesterase inhibitors
NMDA receptor antagonist

Front 385

Choloinesterase inhibitors

Back 385

medicine for AD
aricept, exelon

keep acetylcholine levels high

Front 386

NMDA receptor antagonist

Back 386

Namenda

regulates activity of glutamate by blocking areas in the brain that are overexcited by glutamate

Front 387

Brain tumors

Back 387

Meningiomas
encapsulated
infiltrating
astrocytic tumors
oligodendroglial tumors
glioblastomas

Front 388

Meningiomas

Back 388

encapsulated and tend to be benign

Front 389

encapsulated

Back 389

has boundaries

Front 390

infiltrating

Back 390

spreading throughout

Front 391

astrocytic tumors

Back 391

astrocytomas and anaplastic astrocytomas

Front 392

glioblastomas

Back 392

most aggressive type of primary brain tumor

Front 393

Stroke

Back 393

sudden onset, cerebrovascular event

Front 394

cerebral ischemia

Back 394

type of stroke

insufficient blood flow to the brain

types:
thrombosis
embolism
arteriosclerosis

cerebral hypoxia

damage is consequences of glutamateric excitotoxicity

Front 395

thrombosis

Back 395

blood clot; typically forming in the brain

Front 396

embolism

Back 396

blood clot that forms somewhere else and gets dislodged and moves to the brain and lodges

Front 397

cerebral hypoxia

Back 397

death of brain tissue

Front 398

cerebral hemorrhage

Back 398

aneurysm

abnormal widening or ballooning of a portion of an artery

due to weakness in the wall of the blood vessel

Front 399

coon

Back 399

brain hits the front of the skull

Front 400

contracoon

Back 400

brain hits the back of the skull

Front 401

Amyloid-beta peptide

Back 401

normal product of cellular metabolism
essential for normal brain functioning
regulates synaptic transmission in the hippocampus
involved in cholesterol transport

Front 402

Encephalitis

Back 402

infection of the CNS

inflammation of the brain parenchyma

symptoms: headaches, flu-like symptoms, fever

West Nile or Varicella-zoster virus

Front 403

Meningitis

Back 403

Inflammation of the meninges
types:
Viral infections (most common)
bacterial meningitis
parasitic menigitis
fungal

Front 404

Bacterial meningitis

Back 404

much less common

Streptococcus pneumonia: most common source of infection

rapid onset

can be fatal

Front 405

Parasitic meningitis

Back 405

Naegleria fowleri enters the body through the nose

not common in US

Front 406

Fungal meningitis

Back 406

Inhaling fungal spores
cryptococcus- inhaling soil contaminated with bird droppings
histoplasma- environments heavy with bat feces

Front 407

Transverse myelitis

Back 407

spinal cord inflammation

destroy/damage myelin which results in scars that interfere with motor neuron communication

Results from:
viral infection
abnormal immune reactions
complication of syphilis, measles, Lyme disease

Front 408

Brain abscess

Back 408

accumulation of infectious materials within the CNS

Front 409

Neurosyphilis

Back 409

Teponema pallidum bacteria is cause

occurs in individuals with untreated syphilis for many years

infects brain/spinal cord

cognitive decline, seizures ocular disorders

Front 410

Creutzfeld-Jakob disease (CJD)

Back 410

caused by a prion
lack of coordination, cognitive dysfunction, rapid progression, fatal

Classic and Variant types

may be related to Kuru

Front 411

prion

Back 411

causes proteins to fold abnormally

Front 412

Classic CJD

Back 412

Sporadic or Familial

Front 413

Sporadic CJD

Back 413

happens but we don't know why

Front 414

Familial CJD

Back 414

hereditary form

Front 415

Variant CJD

Back 415

related to mad cow disease

caused by exposure to contaminated products

Front 416

Kuru

Back 416

seen in New guinea women who ate brains of dead relatives as funeral ritual

Front 417

Epilepsy

Back 417

permanent changes in brain tissue cause the brain to be too excitable

causes: stroke, TBI, dementia, infections, brain tumor some medications

symptoms: repeated, unpredictable seizures; staring spells; violent shaking (convulsions); subtle changes of thought, mood, or behavior

Front 418

Partial epilepsy

Back 418

doesn't involve entire brain

types:
simple
complex

Front 419

simple partial epilepsy

Back 419

symptoms are primarily sensory or motor or both

spread as epileptic discharge spreads

spreads regionally

Front 420

complex partial epilepsy

Back 420

restricted to temporal lobes

engages in automatisms: compulsive and repetitive simple behaviors

Front 421

Generalized epilepsy

Back 421

involves entire brain

types:
Grand mal
Petit mal

Front 422

Grand mal epilepsy

Back 422

loss of consciousness and equilibrium

Tonic-conic convulsions: rigidity (tonus) and tremors (clonus)

resulting hypoxia

Front 423

Petit mal epilepsy

Back 423

not associated with convulsions

disruption of consciousness associated with a cessation of ongoing behavior

Front 424

biological components involved in hunger

Back 424

Hypothalamus
stomach
blood sugar, insulin, hormones
set point
heredity

Front 425

Digestion

Back 425

breaking down food and absorbing its constituents

Front 426

Insulin

Back 426

secreted from the pancreas
regulates the way the body uses glucose
controls glucose production and release from liver

levels high => glucagon levels low
levels low => glucagon levels high

Front 427

Glucose

Back 427

stored in the liver as glycogen
when glucose levels drop, liver converts glycogen to glucose
glucose levels high => liver stops conversion of glycogen to glucose; converts glucose into glycogen for storage

levels drop prior to a meal

Front 428

Glucagon

Back 428

secreted by pancreas
converts glycogen to glucose

Front 429

Energy storage in the body

Back 429

Energy is stored in fats, glycogen, and proteins

fats are most efficient

Front 430

Three phases of energy metabolism

Back 430

Cephalic phase
Absorptive phase
Fasting phase

Front 431

Cephalic phase

Back 431

preparatory phase; preparation for eating
initiated by sight, smell, expectation of food

insulin levels are high

Front 432

Absorptive phase

Back 432

insulin levels are high

blood glucose is being utilized as form of energy

excess glucose is converted into glycogen

glycogen is stored in the liver

Front 433

Fasting phase

Back 433

glucagon levels are high, insulin levels are low

energy that body needs is going to be drawn from the energy stores you made by eating

converting fats into free fatty acids

converting glycogen into glucose

Front 434

Dual-center theory

Back 434

the hypothalamus contains two different regions

one acting to initiate eating and one to stop it

Front 435

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

Back 435

feeding center; hunger center

stimulation increases eating

deactivated by glucose

Front 436

Ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH)

Back 436

satiety center

stimulation decreases eating

stimulated by glucose/ glucoreceptors

Front 437

Stomach

Back 437

hunger pangs and feeling of fullness

contractions => hunger

distension => satiety

Front 438

gut peptides

Back 438

satiety signal

cholecystokinin (CCK)

Front 439

Letpin

Back 439

secreted by fat cells

sensed by hypothalamus

inhibits appetite

Front 440

Neuropeptide Y

Back 440

manufactured in hypothalamus and gut; stimulates appetite

Front 441

Set point

Back 441

homeostatic brain mechanism defends some level of body weight

Front 442

metabolic rate

Back 442

rate at which body burns energy when at rest

Front 443

Environmental factors of hunger

Back 443

Food's pleasure
learning component
taste preferences
taste aversions

Front 444

Adaptive species-typical preferences

Back 444

sweet and fatty foods = high energy
salty = sodium-rich

Front 445

Adaptive species-typical aversions

Back 445

bitter= toxins

Front 446

Orbital prefrontal cortex

Back 446

If lesioned, causes you to eat less
input from olfactory system/bulb

Front 447

Types of Chemical Communication

Back 447

autocrine funciton
paracrine function
pheromone funciton
allomone function
endocrine funciton
neurocrine function

Front 448

pheromone function

Back 448

chemical indicators between individuals in the same species

Front 449

allomone function

Back 449

chemical communication between diff species

Front 450

endocrine function

Back 450

long distance communicator
goes into bloodstream, can go everywhere

Front 451

Features of the endocrine system

Back 451

1. endocrine glands are ductless
2. have a rich blood supply
3. hormones secreted into bloodstream
4. hormones can travel to every cell in the body
5. hormone receptors interact with particular hormones

Front 452

Neurosecretory cells

Back 452

receives info synaptically just like a neuron
release hormones instead of NT
link between nervous system and circulatory system

Front 453

Hormones vs. NTs

Back 453

hormones:
released into blood
act at sites far from point of release
graded responses
slow

NTs:
release into synapse
act locally
all/none response
fast

Front 454

Functions of hormones

Back 454

modulate cell activity
promote growth, proliferation, and differentiation of cells
modulate rate of function
influence the probability of behavior

Front 455

Types of hormones

Back 455

Protein/peptide hormones
amine hormones
steroid hormones

Front 456

Protein/Peptide hormones

Back 456

bind to receptors on outside of membrane
most rapid effects of all hormones

ocytocin and ACTH

Front 457

Amine hormones

Back 457

same relatively fast receptor response as protein hormones

Front 458

Steroid hormones

Back 458

bind to receptors within the cell
slow
sexual actions and sexual development

gonadal and adrenal hormones

Front 459

Hypothalamus

Back 459

releases releasing hormones
paraventricular nucleus and subraoptic nucleus

releases CRH
releases TRH
releases GnRH
releases GnRI

signals endocrine gland to secrete horomone, hormones effects target cells, target produces a response, this response feeds back to the hypothalamus to regulate continued secretion of hormone

Front 460

pituitary gland

Back 460

hypophysis
one of the most regulated systems in endocrine system
connected to hypothalamus

two parts:
anterior
posterior

Front 461

anterior pituitary

Back 461

adenohypophysis

derived during embryological development from the roof of the mouth

connected to hypothalamus by hypohyseal protal system

prolactin

FSH and LH

ACTH

Front 462

posterior pituitary

Back 462

neurohypophysis

derived from nervous tissue

two protein hormones released:
oxytocin
vasopressin

synthesized in paraventricular and supraoptic nucleus

has axons

Front 463

Testes

Back 463

androgens

Leydig cells, T

Front 464

ovaries

Back 464

progestins, estrogens

Front 465

placenta

Back 465

Human chorionic gonadotropin, estrogen, progesterone

Front 466

Ovulation

Back 466

Corpus luteum secretes progesterone

egg not fertilized=> levels of progesterone decrease
egg fertilized=> progesterone stays high

Front 467

Egg not fertilized

Back 467

Progesterone and estrogen levels decrease
uterine lining sluffs off

tells hypothalamus to secrete FSH and cycle happens all over again

Front 468

Egg is fertilized

Back 468

progesterone levels stay high
uterine lining stays thick
fertilizd egg secretes the human coreonic gonadotrpic hormone

Front 469

coreonic gonadotropic hormone

Back 469

hormone looked for in pregnancy tests

Front 470

Birth

Back 470

Toward ends of pregnancy- placenta secretes large amounts CRH
then mom and fetus produce ACTH
ACTH acts on adrenal cortex which secretes DHEA
DHEA converted to estrogen by placenta, which results in increase levels of estrogen
This causes smooth muscles of uterus to form gap junctions, contract together
Oxtytocin is expressed
Prostaglandins are synthesized- cause contractions

Front 471

Organizational effects of hormones

Back 471

early in development
"sensitive period"
enable later behavior
permanent
determine male or female development

Front 472

activational effects of hormones

Back 472

occur late in life, related to developmental period

transient effects

occur when hormones enables certain types of behaviors to be more likely

Front 473

Chromosomal sex

Back 473

determined at conception

XX-female
XY- male

Front 474

Gonadal sex

Back 474

determined later in development
Y chromosome controls development of glands that produce male sex hormones

Front 475

Before 6 weeks post fertilization

Back 475

undifferentiated fetus
bipotential gonads
Fetus has two sets of undeveloped internal reproductive ducts

Front 476

Wolffian duct system

Back 476

undeveloped male system

Front 477

Mullerian duct system

Back 477

undeveloped female system

Front 478

SRY Gene

Back 478

on Y chromosome, produces tesits-determining factor

gonads develop into testes

secrete testosterone, MIH

Front 479

XX

Back 479

No SRY Gene
No TDF
Ovary development
Mullerian duct develops into fallopian tubes, uterus, and inner vagina
No MIH

Front 480

Aromatization Hypothesis

Back 480

androgens masculinize nervous system

Front 481

Aromatase

Back 481

enzyme that converts testosterone to estradiol

Front 482

Alpha-fetoprotein

Back 482

binds to estrogen and this complex can't cross the blood brain barrier
prevents estrogen from entering the brain so it doesn't masculinize

Front 483

SDN-POA

Back 483

sexually dimorphic nucleus of pre-optic area
nuclei larger in males
nucleus in hypothalamus
involved in male copulatory behavior

Front 484

Testosterone in a male

Back 484

right around birth, testosterone increase then decreases until puberty; large SDN-POA

Front 485

Testosterone in a female

Back 485

no rise in testosterone around birth or puberty; small SDN-POA

Front 486

Brain and Hormone Activity in Male Mating

Back 486

Input from estrous female, causes activity in olfactory bulbs and MPOA
causes surge in GnRH
leads to rise in testosterone
this facilitates sexual behavior
copulation occurs

Front 487

Neurotransmitters involved in sexual behavior

Back 487

Dopamine plays central role

Front 488

Mesostriatal tract

Back 488

controls muscular response for mounting

controls genital response

Front 489

Mesolimbocortical tract

Back 489

controls sexual motivation

Front 490

Medial Preoptic Area (MPOA)

Back 490

body postures associated with sex

Front 491

Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Back 491

central players in regulation of species-specific social and reproductive behavior

Front 492

Oxytocin

Back 492

female sexual behavior, parturition, lactation, maternal attachment, pair bonding

Front 493

Vasopressing

Back 493

male erection and ejaculation, mediates aggression, territoriality, pair-bonding

Front 494

ventral pallidum

Back 494

contains vasopressin receptors

Front 495

Androgen insensitivity

Back 495

defect on the X chromosome of a male individual
mutation on the X chromosome of the AR gene (codes for androgen receptors)
body does not masculinize
no significant effect in females
can't occur in chromosomal female

Front 496

Congenital Adrenal Hyperphasia (CAH)

Back 496

genetic detect of the adrenal gland that can't produce vital hormones known as corticosteroids

Front 497

phonemes

Back 497

smallest unit in the sound system of language

Front 498

morphemes

Back 498

smalles grammatical unit of language

Front 499

syntax

Back 499

the way that different linguistic elements are combined together in phrases or in sentences

Front 500

sensitive period

Back 500

critical time to be exposed to languages for optimal learning

Front 501

Broca's area

Back 501

Brodmann areas 44 and 45

area 44= posterior inferior frontal gyrus; phonological
verbal fluency
processing, language production

area 45= anterior inferior frontal gyrus; semantics

Front 502

arcuate fasiculus

Back 502

connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area

Front 503

Wernicke's area

Back 503

Brodmann area 22
Three subarea

Front 504

1st subarea of Wernicke's area

Back 504

responds to spoken words (self and others) and other sounds

Front 505

2nd subarea of Wernicke's area

Back 505

words spoken by someone else, when recalling a list of words

Front 506

3rd subare of Wernicke's area

Back 506

producing speech

Front 507

planum temporale

Back 507

located on superior temporal gyrus
superior portion of area 22
lies between primary auditory cortex

Front 508

angular gyrus

Back 508

area 39
semantic processing

Front 509

supramarginal gyrus

Back 509

area 40
phonological and articulatory processing of words

Front 510

When you hear a spoken word

Back 510

processed first by primary auditory cortex
then Wernicke's area

associates structure of word with representation of words stored in memory

Front 511

When you read a word aloud

Back 511

processed first by visual cortex
then angular gyrus
then Wernicke's area

Front 512

When you hear someone speak a word

Back 512

Wernicke's area recognizes the word, then arcuate fasciculus, then Broca's area, then motor learning

Front 513

Amnesia aphasia

Back 513

comprehension of language is relatively intact
difficulty in finding names of objects
Two kinds:
one with noun
one with verbs

Front 514

Wernicke's apashia

Back 514

fluent aphasia
lack of comprehension
"word salad"
speech is fluent but doesn't make sense
damage to left hemisphere in temporal parietal junction

Front 515

Auditory Agnosia

Back 515

difficult recognizing spoken words
can't perform repetitive tasks or repeat instructions

Two types:
verbal: comprehension
nonverbal: only environmental sounds

Front 516

surface dyslexia

Back 516

difficult identifying words as a whole

errors in trying to pronounce complex or irregular words

damage to left temporal lobe, fusiform gyrus, left inferior parietal lobe, angular and supramarginal gyro

rely on pronunciation rules

Front 517

Advantages of lateralization

Back 517

increased neural efficiency to concentrate function in one hemisphere
Two cognitive processes may be more readily performed simultanesouly

Front 518

propsopagnosia

Back 518

can recognize objects not faces
acquired form brain trauma; fusiform gyrus

Front 519

Right hemisphere

Back 519

perception of music
people that are profession key board players have larger corpus callosums relative to brain size

Front 520

Left hemisphere

Back 520

planum temporale

perfect pitch

Front 521

Anatomic hemispherectomy

Back 521

frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes removed

basal ganglia and thalamus left in place

Front 522

Functional hemispherectomy

Back 522

smaller area of the affect hemisphere removed

Front 523

split-brain individuals

Back 523

corpus callosum severed

communication between left and right severed

Front 524

Motor Theory of evolution of hemispheric asymmetry

Back 524

Left controls fine movements

left damage can produce motor and speech deficits

Front 525

Language theory of evolution of hemispheric asymmetry

Back 525

primary role of left hemisphere is language

Front 526

locked-in syndrome

Back 526

high levels of awareness and arousal

completely paralyzed except being able to move eyelids

result of massive brainstem lesion (stroke)

Front 527

coma

Back 527

low arousal
low awareness

Front 528

vegetative state

Back 528

high arousal
low/no awareness

Front 529

minimally conscious state

Back 529

high arousal
low awareness that fluctuates

Front 530

persistent vegetative state

Back 530

in vegetative state more than a month

Front 531

permanent vegetative state

Back 531

no awareness
high arousal
3 months for non-traumatic brain injury

1 year for traumatic brain injury

Front 532

awareness

Back 532

thought to be dependent upon the functional integrity of the cerebral cortex and its subcortical connections

Front 533

Bedside examination

Back 533

look for eye tracking, motor and verbal responses
not recommended

Front 534

Glasgow coma scale

Back 534

40% misdiagnosed

Front 535

EEG and ERP

Back 535

electroencephalogram and event-related potential

looking to see if there are action potentials responding to stimuli given

Front 536

Fronto-parietal network for consciousness

Back 536

prefrontal cortex => parietal cortex => thalamus => prefrontal cortex

Front 537

precuneus

Back 537

"hub" in the network
where consciousness is located

located in the posterior parietal cortex

Front 538

Thalamo-cortical

Back 538

also important to consciousness

Front 539

Circadian rhythm

Back 539

24 hours
temperature, heart, respiration, metabolism in humans

Front 540

Ultradian rhythm

Back 540

90 minutes
sleep

Front 541

infradian rhythm

Back 541

more than 1 day
menstrual cycle

Front 542

circannial cycle

Back 542

annually
hibernation

Front 543

phase shift

Back 543

alter when you give cue for experiment

Front 544

endogenous clock

Back 544

superchiasmatic nucleus

Front 545

entrainment

Back 545

rhythm gets set to external cues

Front 546

zeitgeber

Back 546

external cue

Front 547

superchiasmatic nucleus

Back 547

recieves visual info directly from the eye

lies just above the optic chiasm

projects to the paraventricular nucleus

Front 548

SCN clock cells

Back 548

glucose metabolism increases during the day more than night

Each cell has own clock

act in synchronized fashion

Front 549

Nature of clock cells

Back 549

produce protein upon reaching critical level, inhibits own production

TIM and PER

activate retinal ganglion cells

Front 550

retinohypothalamic pathway

Back 550

consists of retinal ganglion cells that project to the SCN

Front 551

paraventricular nucleus

Back 551

connects with the pineal gland and secretes melatonin

Front 552

Melatonin

Back 552

secreted more the longer the night

suppresses reproductive gonadal output

only applies to seasonal breeders

Front 553

Shift Work

Back 553

phase advance/phase delay

can lessen by:
rapidly rotating shifts
better; one/two shifts max then diff time
slow rotating shifts
rotate shifts on weekly/monthly basis

Front 554

phase advance

Back 554

rising early/going to bed early

Front 555

phase delay

Back 555

going to bed late/getting up late

Front 556

Jet lag

Back 556

East => West (better adjustment); day lengthened
West => East (1 day per 1 hour); day shortened

Front 557

NREM sleep

Back 557

slow, high amplitude brain waves

initiated and maintained by forebrain

Front 558

REM sleep

Back 558

fast, low amplitude waves, rapid eye movements

reduced muscle tone

generated by brain stem

Front 559

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 559

used to study sleep

widespread cortical and subcortical systems generate the electrical rhythms of diff states/stages

Front 560

Waking Stage of Sleep

Back 560

Alpha and Beta waves

beta activity associated with alertness

Front 561

Alpha waves

Back 561

10-12 hertz

Front 562

beta waves

Back 562

13-40 hertz

Front 563

Stage 1 of sleep

Back 563

slow wave sleep

Vertex spike

transition between wakefulness and sleep

lasts about 10 minutes

very easily awakened

heart rate slows; muscle tension decrease

theta waves

Front 564

theta waves

Back 564

3.5-7.5 hertz

Front 565

Stage 2 of seep

Back 565

slow wave sleep

irregular brain waves

bursts of activity

sleep spindles

about 15 minutes long

if awakened would deny being asleep

important for learning of motor tasks

Front 566

sleep spindles

Back 566

bursts of activity

12-24 hertz

last about 0.5 seconds

Front 567

Stage 3 of sleep

Back 567

slow wave sleep

delta waves

important for memory and learned facts

Front 568

delta waves

Back 568

3.5 hertz

large amplitude

Front 569

Stage 4 sleep

Back 569

Delta waves

hard to waken

slow wave sleep

important for memory and learned facts

Front 570

Slow wave sleep

Back 570

important for memory

increase of glucose metabolism in frontal lobe

more delta activity in frontal lobe when there is more brain power used during the day

Front 571

REM sleep

Back 571

beta activity

lack of muscle tones

vulnerable

80% report dreaming if awakened

Front 572

Polyphasic sleep cycles

Back 572

infants and elderly

Front 573

Naps

Back 573

no REM or deep sleep

only get stage 1/2

Front 574

Forebrain in sleep

Back 574

produces a state of SWS

Front 575

encephale isole

Back 575

isolated brain

incision between medulla and spinal cord

EEG alternates b/t periods of wakefulness and periods of sleep

shows patterns of sleep are regulated by structures in the brain

Front 576

cerveau isole

Back 576

isolated forebrain

incision in midbrain

EEG rostral to incision shows constant
SWS

Front 577

basal forebrain in sleep

Back 577

generates SWS

when lesioned => no SWS

releases GABA which suppresses activity in tuberomamillary nucleus in hypothalamus

suppresses wakefulness

Front 578

Reticular formation in sleep

Back 578

extends from medulla to forebrain

when stimulated, it activates the forebrain from sleep

lesioned => persistent SWS

Front 579

Raphe nucleus in sleep

Back 579

serotonin is synthesized here

serotonin release promotes SWS

promotes SWS

inhibits REM during SWS and wakefulness

Front 580

Pontine System in sleep

Back 580

pons

Triggers REM sleep

stimulating pons induces REM sleep

pontogeniculociiptae waves (PGO waves)

Front 581

What happens during REM

Back 581

acetylcholinergic neurons in pons are activated

Neurons project to:
tectum
lateral geniculate nucleus
nuclei of medulla
neurons in basal forebrain

Front 582

tectum in sleep

Back 582

rapid eye movement

Front 583

lateral geniculate nucleus in sleep

Back 583

PGO waves

Front 584

nuclei of medulla in sleep

Back 584

muscular paralysis, GABA, glycine

Front 585

neurons in basal forebrain area in sleep

Back 585

cortical activation

Front 586

Hypothalamic center in sleep

Back 586

secretes protein Hypocretin

controls transitions between stages

Neurons project to:
basal forebrain
reticular formation
nuclei of medulla
tuberommaillary nucleus

Front 587

Narcolepsy

Back 587

loss of hypocretin

symptoms:
extreme drowsiness every 3-4 hours
dream-like hallucinations
sleep paralysis
cataplexy (loss of muscle tone)

intrusion of REM into wakefulness

Front 588

hypocretin

Back 588

protein secreted by the hypothalamic center that prevents transition from wakefulness directly into REM sleep

Front 589

sleep attacks in narcolepsy

Back 589

last about 15 minutes

typically occur after eating

wake up and feel refreshed

can happen at anytime

Front 590

Catplexy

Back 590

sudden loss of muscle tone while awake

inability to move

strong emotions can bring this on

usually less than 30 seconds long

Front 591

Treatments for narcolepsy

Back 591

lifestyle adjustments

medications:
stimulants
antidepressants

Front 592

antidepressants and narcolepsy

Back 592

used to reduce episodes of cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations

Front 593

stimulants and narcolepsy

Back 593

provigil

preferred because it is less likely to be abused

Front 594

Insomnia

Back 594

trouble falling asleep/staying asleep

causes:
poor sleep, lifestyle habits, medications, alcohol, caffiene

Front 595

Medications for Insomnia

Back 595

Ambien
Intermezzo
Melatonin

Front 596

Ambien (Zolpidem)

Back 596

used for Insomnia
trouble falling asleep

GABA-BZ receptor complex

preserves deep sleep

Front 597

Intermezzo

Back 597

for middle of the night wakefulness in Insomniacs

same as ambien just less

Front 598

Melatonin

Back 598

mild effect for reducing time to fall asleep in insomniacs

Front 599

Sleep apnea

Back 599

one/more pauses in breathing or shallow breaths while you sleep, lasting a few seconds/minutes

Front 600

Obstructive sleep apnea

Back 600

blockage of narrow airway during sleep

surgery can be performed to remove excess tissue

more common in overweight

most common form of sleep apnea

Front 601

Central sleep apnea

Back 601

less common

brain regions responsible for controlling breathing isn't working properly

more common in some types of medical conditions

Front 602

Periodic movement limb disorder/ Restless leg syndrome

Back 602

altered dopaminergic mechanisms

Parkinson's

Front 603

REM behavior disorder

Back 603

act out dreams

physically move limbs

result of damage to brainstem regions that are involved in inhibiting cranial and spinal nerves

not sleepwalking

Front 604

sleepwalking and night terrors

Back 604

occur in stages 3 or 4.

Front 605

Agonistic Drug Effects

Back 605

1. increase synthesis of NT
2. increase # of NT by destroying degrading enzymes
3. increase release of NT from terminal buttons
4. binds to autoreceptors and blocks their inhibitory effect on NT release
5. binds to postsynaptic receptors and activates or increases effect of NT
6. blocks deactivation of NT by blocking degradation/ reuptake

Front 606

Antagonistic Drug Effects

Back 606

1. block synthesis of NT
2. causes NT to leak from vesicles then destroyed by enzyme
3. blocks release of NT from terminal buttons
4. activates autoreceptors and inhibits NT release
5. receptor blocker

Front 607

Oral injection of drugs

Back 607

dissolved in stomach, carried to intestines, absorbed in bloodstream

Front 608

advantages of oral injection of drugs

Back 608

easy to administer

Front 609

disadvantages of oral injection of drugs

Back 609

influenced by amount and type of food in stomach, some metabolized in stomach, or can't pass membrane

Front 610

Injection of drugs

Back 610

subcutaneously
intramuscularly
intravenously

advantage:
exact dosage known

disadvantage:
too much/allergy- not much can be done

Front 611

Inhalation of drugs

Back 611

absorbed in bloodstream via capillaries in lungs

disadvantage:
hard to regulate dosage, lungs may be damaged

Front 612

Therapuetic index

Back 612

ratio b/t dose that produces desired effect in 50% of animals and dose that produces toxic effect in 50% of animals

Front 613

Factors determining effet of drug

Back 613

age
weight
setting in which drug is used
tolerance
time of day

Front 614

drug tolerance

Back 614

decreased sensitivity due to repeated exposure

Front 615

cross-tolerance

Back 615

one drug can produce tolerance to similar drugs

Front 616

Functional drug tolerance

Back 616

decreased responsiveness at site of action
decrease receptors
decrease efficiency of binding at receptors
receptors less responsive

Front 617

Conditioned drug tolerance

Back 617

tolerance effects maximized when drug is taken in same environment as previously taken

Front 618

Physical dependance theory

Back 618

Biopsychological theory of addiction

not right because:
addicts relapse after detox
begin drug use not explained
addictions develop to drugs without severe withdrawal symptoms

Front 619

Incentive-sensitization theory

Back 619

Biopsychological theory of depression

anticipated pleasure associated with taking drug
Hedonic value- actual value

as the positive incentive value increases, the hedonic value decreases

crave more; enjoy less

Front 620

Tobacco

Back 620

Nicotine is main ingredient

changes number of receptors in nicotinic cholinergic receptors in CNS

stimulates release of DA from NA

decrease in monoamine oxidase

Front 621

Curare

Back 621

targets acetylcholine

blocks nicotinic receptors at neuromuscular joint

muscle relaxer

Front 622

Atropine

Back 622

muscarinic receptors

decrease in parasympathetic activity of muscles, glands

decrease glandular secretions, breathing difficulty, blocks vagus nerve

Front 623

Alcohol

Back 623

blocks NMDA receptors

AMPA receptors (ligand gated)

NMDA receptors (ligand and voltage)

decreases GABA levels

acts as an anxiolytic

increases DA release in NA

Front 624

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Back 624

associated with alcohol

Wernicke:
degenerative brain disorder caused by lack of vitamin B1 (thiamine)
dietary deficiencies can result in this

Korsakoff:
memory disorder
amnesia, disoriented, attention deficits
confabulation (making up something)
difficulty in retreiving memories
difficulty acquiring new info

Wernicke is initial stage then Korsakoff is chronic part

Front 625

Marijuana

Back 625

THC is main active ingredient

acts on CB1 receptor in NS

acts on substantial nigra, hippocampus, cerebellar cortex, cerebral cortex

stimulates release of DA from NA

contains endocannabinoids

Front 626

endocannabinoids

Back 626

function as retrograde messengers

Anandamine

alterations of memory formation, appetite stiumlation, reduced pain sensitivity

Front 627

Cocaine

Back 627

stimulant

binds to DA re-uptake transporters on presynaptic membranes of DA neurons

inhibits removal of DA from synaptic cleft and degradation by monoamine oxidase

blocks reuptake transports for serotonin

ventral tegmental area, NA, and caudate nucleus

increases alertness, feelings of well-being, energy, and motor activity

Tachycardia, hallucinations and elevated blood pressure => excessive prolonged use

Front 628

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Back 628

binds to serotonin reuptake transporter

enters the serotonergic neuron via transporter, causing excessive release of serotonin

similar effects on norepinephrine

causes of release of DA

Front 629

opiates

Back 629

heroin, morphine, codeine

effective analgesics

act on delta, kappa, and mu opioid receptors
all are metabotropic

heroin is converted to morphine in the brain

agonists at the receptors

Front 630

club drugs

Back 630

GHB, Rohypnol, Ketamine, MDMA

Front 631

GHB

Back 631

CNS depressant
treat narcolepsy
metabolite of GABE
exists naturally in brain at low levels
Acts on GABA receptor

Front 632

Rohphenol

Back 632

date rape drug

Benzodiazepine
Acts at GABA receptor
sedation, muscle relaxation, reduction of anxiety

not approved in US

Front 633

Ketamine

Back 633

special K

dissociative anesthetic

distorts perception of sight and sound

used in Vets

NMDA receptor target

related to PCP