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300 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
ratio vs. interval reinforcement schedule
|
ratio - based on number of responses
interval - based on time elapsed |
|
fixed vs. variable
reinforcement schedule |
fixed - implies reinforcement always (takes place after fixed number or time)
variable - implies an average number or time frame is used |
|
Premack principle
|
"an efficient reinforcer is what the client likes to do"
LPB - low probability behavior HPB - high probability behavior |
|
higer order conditioning
|
when a new stimulus is paired with CS and the new stimulus takes on the power of the CS
|
|
operant
|
B.F.Skinner.
a behavior which is not elicited by an obvious stimulus (vs. respondant - consequence of a known stimulant) |
|
Robert Carkhuff
|
creator of 5 point scale: empathy, genuineness, concreteness, respect
|
|
congruence
|
genuine, real, authentic
(characteristic of counselor) |
|
biofeedback device
|
does not change client, but provides biological information.
used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control ANS function. |
|
Robert Kegan
|
"holding environment" (in counseling)
client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction suggests 6 stages of life span development (incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, and interindividual) |
|
maturational view
|
(that of plant growth)
mind driven by instinct. the environment provided nourishment, placing limitations. counselors allow clients to work through early conflicts |
|
equilibration
|
Piaget.
balance between assimilation (taking in new information) and accommodation (modification of cognitive structure) |
|
critical period
|
Konrad Lorenz.
makes imprinting possible. signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or it wont be learned at all |
|
learned helplessness
|
Martin Seligman.
a pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that he is truly powerless to change. believes he has no control |
|
fixation
|
Freud.
when development comes to a halt... when frustration and anxiety are too great... the client remains in a stage where he feels safe |
|
Daniel J. Levinson
|
80% of men experience moderate-severe mid life crisis.
views the crisis as somewhat (+), pointing out that men who do not face it may stagnate |
|
Eric Erikson.
view of ego identity |
ego strives to produce a unique autonomous self. it is not content with the mere assimulation of parental views
|
|
BASIC-ID
|
Arnold Lazarus
behaviorist approach. feels couneling is multimodal, relying on a variety of therapeutic techniques: Behavior Affective response Sensations Imagery Cognitions Interpersonal relationships Drugs |
|
symbolic schema
|
Piaget.
preoperational stage a cognitive structure that grows with life experience allows language and symbolism in play to occur |
|
centration
|
Piaget.
preoperational stage focusing on a key figure of a given object while not noticing the rest of it |
|
Konrad Lorenz
|
ethnology - the study of animal behavior in their natural environment
*imprinting - instinct... infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters illustrated the point of "critical periods" |
|
empiricists
|
(-> behaviorism)
believe development consists of quantitative changes. scientists can only learn from objective facts experience is the source for acquiring knowledge |
|
organismic theorists
|
qualitative (measure of internal changes) rather than quantitative
|
|
sensorimotor
|
Piaget
0-2 years reflex "practical intelligence" object permanance (>8 months) representational thought concept of time (one event takes place before or after another) causality |
|
instinctual
|
behavior than manifests itself in all normal members of a given species (innate, unlearned behaviors)
|
|
duty to warn
|
Tarasoff
a client in immeinent danger to self or others (may contact anothr party to prevent the dangerous situation) |
|
privileged communication
|
CLIENT chooses disclosure
anything said to a counselor by a client will not need to be divulged outside the counseling setting *qualified - exceptions may exist |
|
DMS-IV
multi-axial classification |
I-clinical syndromes, V codes
II-developmental / personality disorders III-physical disorders / conditions IV-severity of psychological stressors V-GAF |
|
V codes
|
the focus of treatment, but not attributable to a mental condition
(marital problems, malingering, etc... day to day problems, not psychological disorders) |
|
CPT
|
current procedural terminology
includes the nature of the treatment; may include length of service time |
|
mental health consultation
|
Caplan
consultant does not see the client directly, but advises the consultee (recommends the consultant be responsible for the clients welfare) |
|
SCII
|
Strong Interest Inventory
measures interest, not ability based on Holland's typology untimed forced choice format (like, indifferent, unlike) |
|
Kuder Career Search
|
Interest Inventory
|
|
ASVAB
DAT GATB |
Armed Service Vocational Aptitude Battery
Differental Aptitude Test General Aptitude Test Battery (used by state employment) |
|
trait factor theory
|
Parson, Williamson, Patterson
assumed that via psychological testing one's personality could be matched to an occupation which stressed those particular traits |
|
trait-factor approach
|
Parsons, Williamson, Patterson
attempts to match worker and work environment (job factors) relies heavily on testing *one time process structural theory differential psychology |
|
Holland
|
believed personality must be congruent with the environment
6 personality types: Realistic - machines Investigative - research, think Conventional - conform, structure, rules Enterprising - leaders Artistic - Social - interpersonal skills |
|
Donald Super
|
career development... longitudinal, reversible
emphasizes self-concept 5 life stages: Growth Exploration (15-24y) Establishment (24-44y) Maintenance (44-64y) Decline (65+) |
|
Anne Roe
|
personality theory of career development
based on a premise that a job satisfies an unconscious need (8) fields / (6) levels |
|
Anne Roe
|
career choice influenced by:
genetics parent-child interaction (parenting styles) unconscious motives current needs interests education intelligence Maslow's hierarchy |
|
Roe's parenting styles
|
overprotective
avoidant acceptant one develops a personality that gravitates (or not) to others |
|
A.A.Brill
|
personality theory of career choice
*psychoanalytic brings Freud's theory to career counseling - emphasizes sublimation (when one expresses an unacceptable need in a socially acceptable manner) |
|
sublimation
|
expresses an unacceptible need in a socially acceptible manner
|
|
Tiedman
O'Hara |
decision making theory of career choice
*individual has the power to choose (1) anticipation (2) implimentation / adjustment |
|
John Krumboltz
|
behavioristic model
social learning approach to career choice (bandura) *modeling *decision making is a skill that can be learned |
|
Edwin Bordin
|
emphasized unconscious mind career choice could solve unconscious conflicts (similar to Roe)
*psychoanalytic difficulties related to job choice are indicative of neurotic symptoms |
|
Henry Murray
|
"needs-press" theory
*the occupation is used to meet a person's current need TAT projective test |
|
pioneers of developmental approach to career counseling
|
Eli Ginzberg
Sol Ginsburg Sidney Axelrod John Herma |
|
longitudinal approach to career counseling
|
Super
Tiedman O'Hara |
|
John Crites
|
research in career maturity
|
|
Gelatt Decision Model
|
information is the fuel of the decision. although career choice is ongoing, there are times when a key decision must be made
information can be organized into three systems: predictive (probable alternatives, actions) value (preference) decision (rules for evaluation) |
|
DOT
|
Dictionary of Occupational Titles
9 digits first three: occupational group second three: tasks / skills last three: alphabetize |
|
OOH
|
Occupational Outlook Handbook
highlights: factors of the job, necessary training, earnings *easiest guide to read |
|
GOE
|
Guide for Occupational Exploration
12 interest areas |
|
contrast effect
|
interviewers perception of interviewee affected by previous
|
|
compensatory effect
|
compensates for things not allowed at the job
|
|
spillover effect
|
engages in activities similar to work in leisure time
|
|
culture
|
that which distinguishes one group from another (that which characterized a group):
customs, values, attitudes, beliefs |
|
contextualism
|
behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which it occurred
|
|
frustration-aggression theory
|
Dollard / Miller.
frustration - occurs when one is blocked so cannot reach one's goal |
|
cognitive-dissonance theory
|
Festinger.
dissonance - state of inconsistency / incompatibility reduced by denial |
|
folkways vs. mores
|
folkways - describe correct, normal habitual behavior (embarrased by violating)
mores - beliefs re: rightness or wrongness of a behavior (punished by violating) |
|
social distance scale
|
Bogardus.
how one feels toward other ethnic groups (racial, national, religious, linguistic, cultural) |
|
culture vs. society
|
culture - defined by norms and values (found within a society)
society - self-perpetuating independent group who occupies a difinite territory |
|
Ethnocentrism
|
view self as superior.
to use one's own culture as a yardstick to measure others. based on opinion leads to patriotism, stability, pride |
|
social exchange theory
|
a relationship will endure if rewards > costs
|
|
balance theory
|
(in social psychology). Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory balanced cognitive state (replace inconsistency with consistency) minimize dissonance |
|
best predictors of retirement adjustment
|
financial security
health |
|
therapeutic surrender
|
the client psychologically surrenders himself to counselor of different culture... becomes open with feelings / thoughts
|
|
connotation
|
emotional content of the word
"semantic differential" |
|
emic
|
viewpoint
an anthropological term based on "emigration" each client is an individual with individual differences (vs. etic) |
|
etic
|
viewpoint
humans are humans (treat each client the same, regardless of individual differences) (vs. emic) |
|
autoplastic
|
means of coping: change comes from within
(vs. alloplastic) |
|
alloplastic
|
means of coping: change / alter external factors
(vs. autoplastic) |
|
personalism
|
perception of client:
all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands *see the client who has learned a set of survival skills rather than a diseased client |
|
Stanley Milgram
|
obedience / authority in social settings
|
|
Osgood and Tannenbaum
|
Congruity Theory
attitudes that change the most are less extreme strong beliefs... less likely to change attitude about attitude = neutral... greater likelihood of change |
|
Milton H. Erickson
|
brief psychotherapy
innovative techniques in hypnosis |
|
Arnold Lazarus
|
behaviorist
BASIC-ID multimodal treatment known for initial work in systematic desensitization |
|
Piaget
stages: |
cognitive development
sensorimotor preoperation (2-7y) concrete operation (7-11y) formal operation (12+) |
|
conservation
|
concrete operation
the knowledge that a substance's weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape |
|
reversibility
|
concrete operation
one can undo an action - an object can return to its initial shape |
|
egocentrism
|
preoperational stage
the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else |
|
Lawrence Kohlberg
stages: |
moral development
preconventional (respond to consequences) conventional (wants to meet standards of society, conform) postconventional (self accepted morality, universal, ethical principles) |
|
counterconditioning
|
behaviorist technique
goal: weaken or eliminate a learned response by pairing it with a stronger or desirable response |
|
Harry Stack Sullivan
|
stage theorist
psychiatry of interpersonal relations |
|
John Bowlby
|
bonding and attachment
(adaptive significance) must bond <3 years, if severed "object loss" -> psychopathology |
|
Harry Harlow
|
maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys
attachment - innate tendency (preferred terry cloth over wire mother) |
|
stage theorists vs. developmentalists
|
stage - believe qualitative change between stages
developmental - continuous process, begins at conception, cephalocaudal |
|
preconventional
|
Kohlberg (moral development)
Punishment / Obediance Hedonism Orientation |
|
conventional
|
Kohlberg (moral development)
Good Boy / Good Girl Authority. Law. Order |
|
post conventional
|
Kohlberg (moral development)
Accepted Law. Social Contract Self Conscience. Universal ethics |
|
Oedipus Complex
|
Freud
fantasy of sexual relations with opposite sex parent phallic stage leads to tension > wish to kill > identity with parent of same sex > values. conscious |
|
Gibson
|
researched depth perception using a cliff
|
|
conceptualization of the unconscious mind
|
Freud
|
|
Eros vs. Thanatos
|
love of life
death |
|
introjection
|
incorporate others views as one's own
|
|
denial
|
conscious act of denying an item's existance
|
|
displacement
|
impulse unleashed at a safe target
|
|
sublimation
|
when a person acts out an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptible manner
|
|
rationalization
|
intellectual excuse to minimize hurt feelings
|
|
compensation
|
overdevelop a trait to make up for negative shortcomings
|
|
repression
|
truly forget - automatic, involuntary
|
|
projection
|
attribute unacceptible qualities of self to other
|
|
reaction formation
|
cannot accept impulse - acts in opposite manner
|
|
identification
|
identifies with cause - hope to be perceived in positive light
|
|
successful resolution of Oedipus Complex
|
identification with aggressor (parent of same sex)
*leads to development of superego |
|
unconscious mind
|
Freud.
information normally unknown or hidden from the client |
|
preconscious mind
|
Freud.
capable of bringing ideas into awareness with minimal difficulty. can access conscious and unconscious minds |
|
conscious mind
|
Freud.
aware of immediate environment |
|
ego defense mechanisms
|
unconscious strategies to control tension, relieve anxiety.
distort reality based on self-deception to protect self-image |
|
psychosexual stages
|
Freud
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital |
|
operant conditioning
|
B.F.Skinner
instrumental learning |
|
classical conditioning
|
Ivan Pavlov
"reflexes" respondent behavior |
|
free association
|
analytic technique
instructing the client to say what comes to mind |
|
Anna O
|
patient of Joseph Breuer
suffered from symptoms without organic basis - hysteria after hypnosis, could talk -> catharsis (talking cure) |
|
interpretation
(purpose:) |
make the client aware of unconscious process
|
|
SUDS
|
Subjective units of distress scale
form hierarchy to perform Wolpe's systematic desensitization a behavior therapy technique for curbing phobic reactions created via the process of introspection |
|
mandalas
|
Carl Jung
drawings balanced around a center point self-unification (magic protective circle) |
|
Eidetic imagery
|
ability to remember minute details for an extended period of time
"photographic memory" gone by the time a child reaches adolescence |
|
Carl Jung
|
analytic psychology
archetypes - inherited unconscious factors personality factors->MBTI |
|
learning (3 types)
|
reinforcement (operant conditioning)
association (classical conditioning) insight |
|
Alfred Adler
|
individual psychology
-sibling interaction may have more impact than parent / child interaction -strive for superiority -"will to power" -thirst for perfection |
|
Eric Berne
|
Transactional Analysis
3 ego states: Child Adult Parent structural theory |
|
Little Hans
|
psychoanalytic explanation of fear (explained using Oedipus Complex and castration anxiety)
(in opposition to Little Albert - behaviorist view) |
|
Neo-Freudians
stress social factors |
A.Adler
K.Horney E.Erikson H.Stack Sullivan E.Fromm |
|
Joseph Breuer
|
"talking cure"
work on hysteria |
|
insight
|
process of making a client aware of something which was previously unknown
increase self-knowledge (technically, the term comes from W.Kohler (Gestalt theorist)) |
|
Analytic movement
(theorists:) |
Freud
Jung Adler |
|
id
|
Freud.
pleasure principle chaotic instincts |
|
ego
|
Freud.
reality personality |
|
superego
|
Freud.
conscience / morals values perfection ideal |
|
Joseph Wolpe
|
systematic desensitization
behaviorist technique decreased reaction to anxious-producing stimuli (ameliorate phobic reactions) based on counterconditioning |
|
TAT
|
Henry Murray 1938
Thematic Apperception Test projective test |
|
Rudolph Dreikurs
|
student of Adler
first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice -> school setting |
|
intoversion
extroversion |
Jung
personality types of MBTI |
|
unconditional positive regard
|
counselor accepts the client without stipulation
non-directive client-centered person-centered |
|
confrontation
|
illuminate discrepancies between clients and helpers view
|
|
Behaviorists
|
do not believe in mental constructs...
feel if it cannot be measured, it does not exist tend to emphasize the power of the environment strive for system reduction do not believe in symptom substitution obtain baseline measures. |
|
Frederick Thorne
|
eclictic
|
|
Rollo May
|
existential counseling
|
|
E.G.Williamson
|
MN Viewpoint
match client traits with career "trait-factor" |
|
B.F.Skinner
|
reinforcement theory
"responses accompanied by satisfaction are repeated" instrumental learning |
|
reinforcers
|
tend to increase the probability that a behavior will occur
(+)something is added after operent (-)something is taken away |
|
punishment
|
decreases the probability that a behavior will occur
|
|
stimulus generalization
stimulus discrimation |
second order conditioning
respond only to specific stimuli |
|
extinction
|
reinforcement is withheld and eventually the behavior will be extinguished
CS is "not" reinforced via the US CR is suppressed |
|
psychoanalysis...
(different than dynamic couseling) |
more sessions
utilizes the couch not face to face |
|
Daniel P. Schreber
|
"Memoirs of Mental Patient"
Freud's view: stuggle with homosexuality |
|
factors negatively impacting social influence
|
competence
power intimacy |
|
counselor's social power or social influence is related to:
|
EAT:
Expertise Attractiveness Trustworthiness |
|
triadic consultation
|
consultant works with a mediator to provide services to a client
|
|
process consultation
|
focus is NOT on the content of the problem, but on the process used to solve the problem
|
|
"doctor patient" model of consultation
|
Schein
consultation is paid to diagnose the problem and prescribe a solution focus: agency, not individual |
|
behavioral consultation
|
"social learning model"
consultant designs behavioral change models for the consultee to implement |
|
mental health consultation
|
Caplan
"psychodynamic" consultant does not see the client but advises the consultee |
|
Person-Centered
|
reflection vs. advice
*Conditions for Growth: Empathy Genuineness / Congruence Unconditional (+) regard -> self actualization |
|
Carl Rogers
|
existential / humanistic
Person-Centered |
|
retroflection
|
act of doing to self what you would like to do to others (Gestalt)
unfinished business unexpressed emotions |
|
Gestalt:
|
(word came from Wertheimer)
form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole -here and now -experience -stay with the feeling -"I" stattements -psychodrama - role playing (experiment, exercise) |
|
Carkhuff... Gazda
|
core dimensions (qualities) (+) therapeutic outcomes
[5 point scale] empathy genuineness concreteness respect |
|
Fritz Perls
|
Gestalt Therapy
empty chair technique (individual can work on opposing feeling); underdog; topdog use exaggeration |
|
Donald Meichenbaum
|
cognitive restructuring
"Self Instructional Therapy" stress inoculation techniques: educational, rehearsal, and application phases |
|
Aaron Beck
|
cognitive therapy
(differs from REBT) dysfunctional ideas are too absolute and broad though not necessarily irrational |
|
RBT
|
Maultsby (studied with A.Ellis)
Rational Behavior Therapy written self analysis didactic role = counselor |
|
systematic desensitization
(steps:) |
Joseph Wolpe
relaxation training construction-anxiety hierarchy desensitization in imagination in vivo desensitization |
|
therapeutic cognitive restructuring
|
(REBT)
irrational thinking - core of emotional disturbance *cognitive dispution* refuting irrational ideas and replacing them with rational ones |
|
REBT
ABC DE |
Affecting event
Belief system Consequence (emotional) Disputing the irrational belief Effective new philosophy |
|
Epictetus
|
"people are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them"
REBT |
|
Albert Ellis
|
REBT
assumes client's emotional disturbance is the result of irrational thoughts annd ideas |
|
Reality Theory
(client-counselor relationship) |
William Glasser
like a friend asking what is wrong client and counselor be persistent and never give up past... not a primary focus, successful behaviors little use of diagnostic labels |
|
William Glasser
|
Reality Theory
incorporates control theory (choice theory) perception controls our behavior |
|
rational emotive imagery
|
used by REBT
client imagines situations that has caused emotional disturbances, imagines change feeling using rational, logic, scientific thought |
|
pioneers in behaviorism
|
Pavlov
Jones (Mary Carver) Watson |
|
E.Thorndike
|
"law of effect"
trial and error learning assumes that (+) associations related to given behavior > "stamped in" (-) > "stamped out" |
|
Mary Carver Jones
|
learning - could serve as treatment for phobic reaction
|
|
Neal Miller
|
*biofeedback
first to demonstrate that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes |
|
Skinner vs. Pavlov
|
operant conditioning (instrumental)
classical conditioning (respondent) |
|
extinction
|
ignoring a behavior... it will go away in time
(it will get worse before it gets better) client is isolated from the reinforcement |
|
Yerkes-Dodson Law
|
a moderate amount of arousal actually improves performance
|
|
averse conditioning
|
pair (behavior item) with aversive stimulus to decrease satisfaction
|
|
existential vs. behaviorist
|
focus on hear and now - what the person can become, philosophy of helping, abstract, non-systematic, vague re: technique and procedures, rejects traditional diagnosis and assessment
|
|
Viktor Frakl
|
logotherapy - one has choices and cannot blame others or childhood for lack of fulfillment
existential philosophy healing through meaning |
|
paradoxical intention
|
advise client to purposely exaggerate a dysfunctional behavior in the imagination
(behaviorist) |
|
covert sensitization
|
"imagine"
|
|
implosive therapy
|
T.G.Stampft
conducted in the imagination |
|
flooding
|
in vivo
deliberate exposure to the feared stimuli with response prevention (avoiding the fear > intensify it) |
|
punishment
|
decreases the probability that a behavior will occur
effects are usually temporary it teached aggression does not cause one to unlearn the behavior |
|
empathy vs. sympathy
|
the ability to experience another person's subjective experience / world and communicate that
compassion (it may imply pity) |
|
Robert R. Carkhuff
|
scale for measurement of empathic understanding in interpersonal processes
1-5 |
|
Eric Berne
|
Transactional Analysis (TA)
(cognitive approach, intellectual) incorporates Gestalt Therapy (experimental, affect) |
|
Parent
|
E.Berne
"ought / should" composed of values internalized from significant others Nurturing or Critical (superego) (exteropsyche) |
|
Adult
|
E.Berne
processes facts not feelings (ego) (neopsyche) |
|
Child
|
E.Berne
(id) (archaeopsyche) Natural, Little Professor, Adapted |
|
existentialism
|
stress: growth and self-actualization
*self determination counselor helps the client discover meaning in life by doing a deed or suffering rejects analysis and behaviorism for being deterministic and reductionistic |
|
Alfred Adler
|
lifestyle is a predictable self-fulfilling prophecy based on our psychological feeling of ourself.
behavior must be studied in a social context -lifestyle -birth order -family constellation -organ inferiority (and the individual attempts to compensate) -people wish to belong -social connectedness |
|
Moreno
|
group therapy
around 1960 |
|
theorist...
preface to group therapy |
Adler
"man's problems and conflicts are recognized in their social nature" |
|
groups
(three levels) |
primary - preventive. attempt to ward of problems and minimize the occurrence of difficulty
secondary - problem is present. attempt to lessed the severity / length of the problem tertiary - deals wth individual difficulties / longstanding |
|
content vs. process
|
content - material discussed
process - the manner in which the discussion and transaction occur (analyzing communication, transaction, interaction) |
|
groups
(three types) |
guidance - primary group. structured. preventive
counseling - focus: conscious concerns therapy - psychodynamic. tertiary group |
|
structured vs. unstructured
|
(-) less effective, pass over group stages
(+) speed up interaction and focus |
|
horizontal vs. vertical
|
approach the group as a whole (interpersonal)
approach individuals in the group (intrapersonal) |
|
cohesiveness
|
forces which bind group members together
|
|
norms
|
govern acceptible rules / behavior
|
|
stages of group formation:
|
forming
storming norming performing adjourning |
|
difficulty index
|
indicates the percent of individuals who answer each item correctly
|
|
test format:
normative |
can be compared to others taking the text
percentile rank |
|
test format: ipsative
|
each item is independent of all other items
a client cannot be compared to others who have taken the test (compares traits within the same individual) |
|
achievement test
|
measures maximum performance
|
|
personality test
inventory |
measures typical performance
|
|
spiral test
|
items get progressively more difficult
|
|
parallel form
|
two versions or forms are interchangeable
same mean and standard error |
|
validity
|
measures what it says it measures
MOST IMPORTANT |
|
reliability
|
how consistent a test measures an attribute
|
|
content validity
|
(rational, logical)
how well the test examines or samples the behavior |
|
construct validity
|
a test's ability to measure a theoretical construct (intelligence, self esteem, mechanical ability) *any trait you cannot "directly" measure or observe
|
|
predictive validity
|
empirical validity
reflects the test's ability to predict future behavior according to established criteria |
|
criterion validity
|
concurrent
predictive |
|
synthetic validity
|
researcher looks for tests that have been shown to predict each job element
|
|
incremental validity
|
describes the process by which a test is refined and becomes more valid as contradictory items are dropped.
refers to test's ability to improve predictors (gives information that other tests do not) |
|
face validity
|
refers to the extent that a test looks or appears to measure the intended attribute
|
|
concurrent validity
|
how well the test compares to other instruments that measure the same behavior, construct, trait
|
|
convergent validity
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a method used to assess a test's construct / criterion validity by correlating test scores with an outside source
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discriminant validity
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the test will not reflect unrelated variables
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a RELIABLE test is not always VALID
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a VALID test is always RELIABLE
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test-retest reliability
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give same test to same group 2 times, then correlate the scores (OK for items that remain stable: IQ; not for MOOD or MEMORY)
tests for stability |
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equivalent / alternate form reliability
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give the same population alternate forms of identical test
parallel forms must have counterbalancing |
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split half method
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individual takes the entire test as a whole, then divided in half
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inter-rater / inter-observer reliability
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utilized with subjective tests to ascertain whether the scoring criteria are such that 2 persons -> roughly the same score
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reliability coefficient
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1=perfect score - no error.
only with physicial measures .9=excellent psychological test .8=acceptable level of variance (20% can be accounted for by error) |
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true variance
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percentage of shared variance - the level of the same thing measured by both tests
*square the correlation "coefficient of determination" |
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Frances Galton
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concluded that intelligence is normally distributed like height and weight
primarily genetic |
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Charles Spearman
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felt intelligence was best explained via a 2 factor theory
G=general ability S=specific ability |
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J.P.Fuilford
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isolated 120 factors > intelligence
convergent - taking a number of thoughts and coming up with a single idea divergent - coming up with a novel idea |
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Kudar Richardson coefficient of equivalence
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internal consistency reliability
inter item consistency also: Cronbach's alpha coeffieient |
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IQ
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Intelligent Quotient
MA x 100% CA SAS - standard age score mean = 100 SD = 15 |
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WPPSI-R
WAIS-III WISC-III |
3-7y
adults 6-16y |
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Wechsler IQ
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WAIS-III
individual test "performance" and "verbal" skills mean = 100 SD = 16 |
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John Entl
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claimed he invented an electronic machine to analyze neural efficiency to take the place of paper/pencil IQ tests
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Raymond B.Cattell
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fluid - inherited neurological intelligence, declines with age, not dependent on culture
crystallized intelligence - from experience, culture, education |
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Arthur Jensen
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Black vs. White controversy
1969 whites scored 10-15 points higher on IQ |
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psychometric
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any form of mental testing
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16 PF
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Raymond B.Cattell
16 personality factor questionnaire |
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MBTI
reflects work of: |
Carl Jung
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one who favors projective measures:
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psychodynamic clinician
relies on unconscious mind |
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aptitude vs. achievement
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measures potential (predictive validity)
measures what has been learned |
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school selection tests.
aptitude or achievement |
aptitude
aptitude - achievement |
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standard error of measurement
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how accurate or inaccurate a test score is
low standard error = high reliability |
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threats to internal validity
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maturation of subjects
mortality instruments used statistical regression |
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causal comparative design
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true experiment EXCEPT
groups were not randomly assigned... can use parametric statistical tests |
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R.A. Fisher
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hypothesis testing
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null hypothesis
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the IV does not effect the DV
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experimental hypothesis
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suggests a difference will be evident between control and experimental group
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parameter vs. statistic
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summarized a characteristic of a population
value drawn from a sample |
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p
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probability
level of significance <= .5. differences would occur via chance only 5 times in 100. (differences exist, but the researcher would get the same results 95 of 100 times. |
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Type I error
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alpha
reject the null hypothesis when it is true probability of making Type I error = level of significance the lower the LoS, the lower the probability of making a Type I error |
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Type II error
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beta
accept the null hypothesis when it is false the lower the LoS, the greater the probability of making a Type II error |
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1-"alpha level"
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the power of the statistical test
*the test's ability to correctly reject a false null hypothesis |
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parametric vs. nonparametric
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more power, used only with interval and ratio data
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the greater the sample size...
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the less probability of making type I and type II errors.
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t-test
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used to ascertain if 2 sample means are significantly different
*computation must be greater that table value to reject null hypothesis; if computation is less than table value, accept the null hypothesis |
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analysis of variance (ANOVA)
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used if there are >2 groups
F statistic. if obtained F is > critical value, reject the null hypothesis |
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ANCOVA
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tests 2+ groups while controlling for extraineous variables (co-variates) that may correlate with DV.
controls for sample differrences. helps remove confounding variables statistically eliminates differences cause by CV |
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Kruskal-Wallis
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used instead of one-way ANOVA with the data are non-parametric
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Wilcoxon signed rank test
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used in place of the t-test when the data are non-parametric and you which to test whether 2 correlated means differ significantly
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Mann Whitney U test
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used in place of t-test when data is non-parametric to determine whether two uncorrrelated means differ significantly
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Spearman correlation
Kendall's tau |
used in place of Pearson r
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factor analysis
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statistical prodedures - attempt to summarize a number of variables using important factors
2+ IV IV = level |
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chi square
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non-parametric measure
tests whether distribution differs significantly from the expected |
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MANOVA
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multivariate analysis of variance
used when study has >1 DV |
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two way ANOVA
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used to test 2 IV
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r
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correlation coefficient
does not equal causal relationship indicates degree of relationship between 2 variables |
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AB design
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single subject research
"continuous measurement" A=baseline B=intervention A=new baseline *withdrawal design: behavior returns to A with withdrawal of B |
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mean
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arthmetic average
(most useful) |
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median
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the score in the exact middle.
(most useful with extreme scores) |
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mode
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most frequently occurring score. point of maximum concentration
(least important). |
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skewed distribution
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distribution of scores is not distributed normally.
mean, median, mode are not equal |
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solomon four group design
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2 control groups
1 experimental group and 1 control group are pre-tested; other control group and experimental group are post-tested |
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x coordinate
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IV
abscissa |
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y coordinate
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DV
ordinate |
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scattergram
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pictoral diagram or graph of 2 variables being correlated. (around regression line reveals where most scores on both variables rest)
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John Henry Effect
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threat to internal validity
occurs when subjects strive to prove that experimental treatment that could threaten their livelihood isn't effective |
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z score
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same as standard deviation
z score or SD of +1 = 34% of individuals |
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t score
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uses mean of 50, SD of 10
z score of -1 = t score of 40 |
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stanine score
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divides distribution into 9 parts.
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nominal
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qualitative classification
groups (non-parametric) |
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ordinal
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rank order
distance between is unequal (non-parametric) |
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interval
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number scale
no absolute zero (parametric) |
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ratio
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number scale
absolute zero can +/*- (parametric) |
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Hawthorne Effect
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reactive effect
if subjects know they are part of an experiment or given more attention, performance improves |
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Rosenthal Effect
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Pygmalion Effect
experimenter effect asserts that experimenter's beliefs about the individual may cause the individual to be treated differently |
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t-test
one-tail vs. two-tail |
directional (statistically higher mean)
non-directional (statistically different) |
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random sampling
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each subject has theh same probability of being selected.
selection of one does not influence selection of another *could use systematic sampling |
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stratification sampling
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variable should mimic the population at large
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horizontal sampling
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occurs when researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group
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variance
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sum of squares / N
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standard deviation measures
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variability
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Super vs. Ginzberg
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Ginzberg did not indicate developmental tasks for every stage of development
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schedule of reinforcement
...greatest rate of subject response |
variable ratio
variable interval |
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1950
1960 1970 1980 |
<1930 - "guidance"
1950 - counseling. developmental psychology (piaget, erikson, havinghurst) 1960 - competing psychotherapies. group "counseling in a changing world" emph. on developmental concerns rather than cause and cure. 1970 - behavior modification 1980 - professionalism, licensing |