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198 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is growth hormone also known as?
How many amino acids does it contain? Where is it synthesized? |
Somatotropin
190 Ant. pituitary by somatotrophs |
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Growth hormone is a major participant in control of several complex physiologic processes, including _____ and _____.
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Growth and metabolism
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In contrast to other hormones GH _____ _____ function through a target gland but instead exerts effects on all or most _____ of the body.
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Does not
Tissues |
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What class of cells synthesizes GH and in what particular aspect of the ant. pituitary?
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Acidophils
Pars distalis |
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GH causes the _____ and to a lesser extent other tissues to form several small proteins called _____ that in turn have a potent effect of increasing all aspects of _____ growth.
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Liver
somatomedins bone |
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What is another name for somatomedins?
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Insulin-like growth factors
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What hormone causes an increased rate of protein synthesis in all cells of the body?
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GH
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What hormone causes a decreased rate of carbohydrate utilization throughout the body?
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GH
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What hormone causes an increased mobilization of fats and use of fats for energy?
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GH
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What hormone causes a shift from the body using fats instead of carbohydrates for energy?
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GH
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What factors increase GH secretion?
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Sleep
Stress Starvation Exercise Hypoglycemia |
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What factors decrease GH secretion?
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Somatostatin
Somatomedins (neg. feedback) Obesity Hyperglycemia Pregnancy |
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What hormone is found is secreted from the Ant. pituitary and targets the thyroid gland?
It stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the thyroid hormone. |
TSH
Thyroid stimulating Hormone |
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What hormone is found in the Ant. pituitary and targets the ovary/testis?
Stimulates the growth of _____ follicles and estrogen secretion or promotes sperm maturation. |
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Graafian |
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What hormone is found in the Ant. pituitary and targets the ovary/testis?
Stimulates ovulation, formation of _____ _____, and synthesis of estrogen and _____, or stimulates the synthesis and secretion of testosterone. |
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
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What hormone is found in the Ant. pituitary and targets the bone?
Stimulates protein synthesis and overall growth. |
GH Growth hormone
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What hormone is found in the Ant. pituitary and targets the mammary glands?
Stimulates milk production and breast development. |
Prolactin
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What hormone is found in the Ant. pituitary and targets the adrenal cortex?
Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of adrenal cortical hormones. |
Adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH)
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What hormone is found in the Ant. pituitary and targets the skin?
Stimulates melanin synthesis. |
Melanocyte stimulating hormones
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What hormone is found in the Post. pituitary and targets the mammary glands and uterine smooth muscle?
Stimulates milk ejection and uterine contraction. |
Oxytocin
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What hormone is found in the Post. pituitary and targets the Kidney tubules?
Stimulates water reabsorption by renal collecting ducts. |
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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What are the second messengers that carry signals from the cell surface to proteins within the cell?
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cGMP
cAMP |
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What molecule intervenes between an original message from a neurotransmitter or hormone and the ultimate effect on the cell?
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Second messenger
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What do second messengers stimulate?
What are they rapidly broken down by? |
Protein kinases
Phosphodiesterases |
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What are the hormones that utilize second messengers?
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Water soluble peptide/protein hormones
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Since only four second messenger systems are recognized in cells what does this say about the hormones or enzymes of yhe body?
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Hormones can either utilize the same second messenger system and/or they can utilize more than one system each
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What is azidothymidine?
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Treatment for HIV
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What is cAMP formed from?
In what reaction? |
ATP
Adenylate cyclase |
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Adenylate cyclase is an integral protein of the _____ _____.
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Plasma membrane
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Epi., norepi., glucagon, LH, FSH, TSH, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, ADH
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Hormones that use cAMP as a second messenger
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Insulin, GH, prolactin, oxytocin, erythropoietin, several growth factors
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Hormones that use protein kinase activity as second messengers
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Epi., norepi., angiotensin II, ADH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, thyroid-releasing hormone
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Hormones that use Calcium and/or phosphoinosies as second messengers
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Atrial naturetic hormone
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Uses cGMP as a second messenger
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What is the factor that is the best known method for increasing the rate of TSH hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary?
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Exposure to cold
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What is another name for the Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?
What secretes it and from where? |
Thyrotropin
Basophils from Pars distalis of Ant. pituitary |
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What does TSH contraol the rate of secretion for?
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T3 and T4 (thyroxine and triiodothyronine)
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What hormone controls the rate of many metabolic processes and the overall metabolic rate?
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Thyroxine
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What stimulus can have an inhibiting effect on TSH secretion?
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Stress
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What hormone stimulates TSH secretion?
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TRH thyrotropin-releasing hormone
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_____ levels of circulating thyroid hormone _____ the secretion of both TRH and TSH.
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High
decrease |
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_____ levels of TSH _____ the secretion of TRH.
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Elevated
decreases |
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What disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of TSH?
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Graves' disease
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What disease is characterized by the hyposecretion of TSH?
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Cretinism (young people)
Myxedema (adults) |
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Where are releasing hormones synthesized?
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Hypothalamus
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The secretions of the anterior pituitary are controlled by hormones called _____ _____ and _____ _____, which are secreted within the hypothalamus itself and then conducted to the anterior pituitary through minute blood vessels called the _____-_____ _____ _____.
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Hypothalamic releasing
Inhibitory factors Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system |
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What hypothalamic nuclei are responsible for the secretion of the posterior pituitary hormones?
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Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
(ADH and oxytocin) |
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What is released by the post. pituitary in response to dilation of the cervix and to suckling?
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Oxytocin
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What does oxytocin stimulate?
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Smooth muscle of the uterus
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What kind of system controls oxytocin release?
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Positive feedback
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What hormone decreases the production of urine by increasing the reabsorption of water by renal tubules?
There would be an extreme loss of what without this? |
ADH
Water |
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The secretion of Glucagon causes a/an _____ in insulin secretion.
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Increase
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Insulin is secreted by the _____ cells in the islets of _____ of the pancreas in response to a _____ in blood glucose level.
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Beta
Langerhans Rise |
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Insulin causes _____ in the liver.
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Glycogenesis
glucose --> glycogen |
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What factors cause the release of insulin by beta cells?
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- Rise in blood glucose levels
- Elevated amino acids in blood plasma - Glucagon, GH, cortisol - Parasympathetic stimulation |
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Sympathetic stimulation or epinephrine _____ insulin release.
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Inhibits
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Insulin conserves what in the body?
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Carbs, Proteins, Fats
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The removal of what causes increased sensitivity to insulin?
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Anterior portion of the pituitary
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What can occur due to a severely low level of glucose?
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Seizures
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The most important function of glucagon is its ability to cause _____ in the liver, which, in turn, _____ plasma glucose.
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Glycogenolysis
Increases |
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What does glucagon not do in the muscle?
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Does not stimulate glycogen degeneration of the muscle.
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Glucagon is secreted by _____ cells in the islets of _____ of the pancreas in response to a _____ in the blood glucose levels.
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Alpha
Langerhans fall |
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Glucagon has many of the _____ effects of insulin.
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Opposite
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What stimuli promotes Glucagon release by alpha cells?
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- Fall in blood glucose levels
- Sympathetic stimulation - Epi., norepi., secretion - Elevated amino acids in blood plasma - Cholecystokinin secretion |
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What enzymes are secreted from the duodenal segment of the small intestine?
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Secretin
Cholecystokinin Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) |
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What is released in response to acid in the small intestine, and stimulates the pancreas to release a flood of bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acids?
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Secretin
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Secretin has the following functions:
_____ stomach motility and gastric acid secretion. _____ the pancreatic duct cells to secrete a fluid containing _____. _____ the secretion of _____ from the gallbladder. |
Inhibits
Stimulates, Bicarbonate Stimulates, Bile |
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What enzyme plays a key role in facilitating digestion within the small intestine?
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Cholecystokinin
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Cholecystokinin is secreted from the _____ _____ cells in the first segment of the small intestine, and stimulates delivery into the small intestine of digestive _____ from the pancreas and _____ from the gallbladder.
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Mucosal epithelial
enzymes bile |
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Cholecystokinin is also produced by neurons in the _____ _____ system, and is widely and abundantly distributed in the _____.
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Enteric nervous
brain |
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What enzyme is a member of the secretin family of hormones and inhibits gastric motility and secretion of acid?
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Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
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What was GIP initially called?
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Enterogastrone
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The enterogastric reflex, which is initiated when the duodenum fills with _____, inhibits the "pyloric pump", thereby inhibiting gastric motility and emptying.
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Acid Chyme
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What are the stop signals on the stomach that are released due to an acidic environment in the duodenum?
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Enterogastrones
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Enterogastrones are released by the small intestine in response to what?
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Acidity of duodenal chyme
Presence of amino acids Free fatty acids in chyme |
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Where is aldosterone produced?
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Adrenal cortex
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Aldosterone is the principal _____ and is secreted by cells located in the _____ _____ of the adrenal cortex.
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Mineralocorticoid
Zona glomerulosa |
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Increased blood aldosterone levels will result in _____ plasma volume and _____ potassium levels in the plasma.
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High
Low |
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What is the major target of aldosterone?
What does it stimulate? |
Distal tubules of kidney
Exchange of sodium and potassium |
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What are the three physiologic effects of increased aldosterone?
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Increased resorption of sodium
Increased resorption of water Increased excretion of potassium |
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What are the two primary regulators of aldosterone?
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1. > Blood potassium = > Aldosterone
2. < Blood volume = > Angiotensin II |
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Decreased _____ concentrations causes the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidneys to secrete _____.
What does this convert? |
Sodium
Renin Angiotensinogen - Angiotensin I - Angiotensin II - Aldosterone release |
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What disease is caused by a hyposecretion of aldosterone?
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Addison's disease
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How do oral contraceptives work?
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Inhibiting ovulation by eliminating the LH surge
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Most oral contraceptives are combined pills that contain synthetic _____-like and _____-like substances.
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Estrogen
Progesterone |
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How does ovulation occur?
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Result of estrogen-induced LH surge
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Unlike other steroid hormones, all estrogens have a/an _____ _____ ring.
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Aromatic A
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Thyroglobulin contains _____, which is attached to _____ molecules.
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Iodine
Tyrosine |
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What synthesizes thyroglobulin?
Into what? |
Follicle cells
Thyroxine T4 and Triiodothyronine T3 |
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Where are the T3 and T4 hormeones stored?
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Colloid-containing regions of the follicles
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When are the thyroglobulin molecules broken down into T3 and T4?
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When Thyroid is actively secreting
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What is the normal concentrations of T3 and T4 in the blood?
What is the more potent of the two? |
T4 is 20x > than T3
T3 is 5x more potent than T4 |
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How is T3 formed from T4?
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By removing one iodine atom
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T3 and especially T4 in the blood stream produces what actions?
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Normal growth and development
Affects metabolic processes and rate Increase O2 consumption and heat production |
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A dietary _____ _____ will increase the secretion of thyroglobulin
What is this instead of? |
Iodine deficiency
Thyroxine, triiodothyronine, TSH |
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What amino acid is taken up by chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla and converted to hormones?
What is it converted to? |
Tyrosine
Epi., and norepi. |
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Secretion of epi and norepi is stimulated by _____ release from _____ _____ fibers innervating the medulla.
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Acetylcholine
Preganglionic sympathetic |
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What kind of receptors does epi and norepi bind to on target cells?
What effect do these hormones mirror? |
Adrenergic receptors
Sympathetic nervous stimulation |
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Outside the nervous system, norepi and its methylated derivative epi. act as regulators of _____ and _____ metabolism.
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Carbohydrate
Lipid (triacylglycerol and glycogen) |
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Besides degradation of molecules what does norepi and particular epi increase?
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Output of the heart and blood pressure.
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What emergency reactions are epi and norepi associated with?
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Fight or Flight
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What two ways are norepi released into the bloodstream?
Which way has a more widespread effect? |
Adrenal medulla into blood
Direct onto organ by postgang. sympathetic neuron Adrenal medulla |
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What cells in the adrenal medulla secrete epi and norepi?
What are their percentages? |
Chromaffin cells
epi 80% norepi 20% |
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What makes a hormone unable to pass through the plasma membrane and must use a plasma membrane receptor?
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Water soluble hormones
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What does epi stimulate which raises blood glucose levels?
What does this stimulate in adipose tissue? |
Glycogenolysis and Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis |
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Epi. increases the _____, _____, and _____ of the heartbeat.
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Rate
Force Amplitude |
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What does epi do to blood vessels in the skin mucous membranes and kidneys?
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Constricts vessels
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What effect does epi have in the lungs?
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Dilates bronchioles
Relaxes bronchiolar smooth muscle |
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What does norepi effect in the heart?
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Rate and force of contraction
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What does norepi promote in adipose tissue?
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lipolysis
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What does norepi do to the vessels of the body?
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Constricts blood vessels = Increase in total peripheral resistance
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What is parathyroid hormone stimulated by?
What is this in response to? |
Chief cells in parathyroid gland
Decreased plasma-calcium levels |
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PTH is a principal controller of _____ and _____ metabolism and is involved in the remodeling of bone.
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Calcium (increases)
Phosphate (decreases) |
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How does PTH increase blood calcium levels?
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Increases calcium removal from bone storage
Increases absorption of calcium by intestines |
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What effect does PTH have on the kidney?
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< calcium excretion
> phosphate excretion Stimulates 1-alpha-hydroxylase |
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What effect does PTH have on the GI tract?
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> calcium absorption
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What causes extensive bone decalcification and is marked by extremely high blood calcium levels and low blood phosphate levels, which leads to muscular weakness?
What is this disease known as? |
Hyperparathyroidism
von Recklinghausen's disease |
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What causes decreased bone resorption, decreased renal Ca2+ reabsorption, increased renal phosphate reabsorption, and decreased production of the active form of vitamin D?
What do these defects together decrease? |
Hypoparathyroidism (tetany)
Decrease serum calcium and increase serum phosphate |
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A diet deficient in calcium will result in production of what?
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PTH and bone resorption
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What hormone is a major physiological regulator of gastric acid secretion?
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Gastrin
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Where is gastrin synthesized?
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G Cells in gastric pits of stomach antrum
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The five C-terminal amino acids of _____ and _____ are identical, which explains their overlapping bilogical effects.
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Gastrin
Cholecystokinin |
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Excessive secretion of gastrin, or hypergastrinemia, is a well-recognized cause of a severe disease known as what?
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Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
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Which hormone has been referred to as glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide and is able to enhance the release of insulin?
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Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
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What cells secrete GIP and where are these cells located?
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K cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and the jejunum
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Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptors are _____-transmembrane proteins found on _____ cells in the pancreas.
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seven
beta |
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It has been found that _____ is not responsive to GIP.
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Type 2 Diabetes
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What hormone stimulates kidney tubules to conserve sodium, which, in turn, triggers the release of ADH and the resulting conservation of water by the kidney?
What is the source of this hormone? |
Aldosterone
Zona glomerulosa |
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What is the target of aldosterone?
|
Kidney
|
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What hormone promotes gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis, immunosuppression and in large amounts, it has an anti-inflammatory effect?
What is the source of this hormone? |
Cortisol
Zona fasiculata |
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What hormone has an uncertain role but may support sexual function?
What is the source of this hormone? |
Adrenal androgens
zona reticularis |
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What is the target of cortisol?
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General
|
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What is the target of Adrenal androgens?
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Sex organs and other effectors
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what hormone is thought to be physiologically insignificant?
What is its source? What is its target? |
Adrenal estrogens
zona reticularis Sex organs |
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What hormone is often called the stress hormone?
What does this hormone stimulate the secretion of? |
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Cortisol |
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Analysis of ACTH is used as an indicator of _____ _____ and is useful in the differential diagnosis of what diseases?
|
Pituitary Function
Addison's Disease Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Cushing's Syndrome |
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What two things does Cortisol have a direct inhibiting effect on?
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Hypothalamus
Anterior Pituitary Gland |
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Cortisol is the main _____ produced and secreted by the cells of the _____ _____ in the adrenal cortex.
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Glucocorticoid
Zona fasciculata |
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Cortisol allows _____ and _____ to work more effectively at their target tissues, but antagonizes the actions of _____.
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Glucagon
Epinephrine Insulin |
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What family of hormones has anti-inflammatory effects, suppresses the immune system, and influences metabolism by causing the movement of feuls from the peripheral tissues to the liver, where gluconeogenesis occurs?
|
Glucocorticoids
|
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What hormone is secreted from the placenta?
What does it stimulate? |
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Corpus luteum to produce estradiol and progesterone |
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What is the target of the Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone?
|
Ovary
|
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What hormone maintains the lining of the uterus necessary for successful pregnancy?
|
Progesterone
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What hormone is responsible for growth and development of female reproductive organs and the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle?
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Estrogen
|
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What increases secretion of growth hormone?
|
Sleep
Stress Starvation Exercise Hypoglycemia |
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What decreases secretion of growth hormone?
|
Somatostatin
Somatomedins Obesity Hyperglycemia Pregnancy |
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What happens in the direct effect of Growth hormone?
|
GH binding its receptor on target cells
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What is mediated primarily by insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), a hormone that is secreted by the _____ and other tissues in response to growth hormone?
|
Indirect effects of GH
liver |
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What is a hypothalamic peptide that stimulates both the synthesis and secretion of GH?
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Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
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What is a peptide produced by several tissues in the body, including the hypothalamus? It inhibits GH release in response to _____ and to other stimulatory factors such as low blood glucose concentration.
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Somatostatin (SS)
GHRH |
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What is a peptide hormone secreted from the stomach which binds to receptors on somatotrophs and potently stimulates secretion of GH?
|
Ghrelin
|
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GH hyposecretion produces what?
|
Dwarfism
|
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GH hypersecretion produces what?
|
Gigantism (children)\
Acromegally (Adults) |
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Somatostatin acts by both endocrine and paracrine pathways to affect its target cells. A majority of the circulating somatostatin appears to come from the _____ and _____.
|
Pancreas
Gastrointestinal tract |
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_____ inhibits the secretion of many other hormones.
|
Somatostatin
|
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What hormones does somatostatin inhibit specifically?
|
GH
Insulin / Glucagon GI hormones (gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin, vasoactive intestinal peptide) |
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What enzyme helps to control water secretion and absorption form the intestines?
|
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
|
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What hormone is a single chain and closely related to GH?
What is it secreted by? Where? |
Prolactin
lactotrophs anterior pituitary |
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What hormone stimulates milk production in the breast, breast development, and inhibits ovulation and spermatogenesis?
|
Prolactin
|
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What does the hypothalamus constantly produce which inhibits prolactin?
|
Prolactin Inhibitory Factor (Dopamine)
|
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What are the factors that decrease prolactin secretion?
|
Dopamine and its derivatives
|
|
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What are factors that increase prolactin secretion?
|
Estrogen (pregnancy)
breast-feeding sleep stress TRH Dopamine antagonists |
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Prolactin is secreted only in response to what?
|
When the hypothalamic brake is released
|
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What is the precursor for steroid hormones?
|
Cholesterol
|
|
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How are steroid hormones secreted into the bloodstream?
|
Endocrine glands like adrenal cortex and gonads
|
|
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What is steroid hormones characterized by?
|
Steroid nucleus - 3 six membered rings and 1 five membered ring
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What is the component of the cell membrane that allows steroid to bind and function in the cells?
|
Cholesterol
|
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What are the five classes of steroid hormones?
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Androgens
Estrogens Progestins Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids |
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What originates in the adrenal cortex and gonads and primarily affects maturation and function of secondary sex organs (male)?
|
Androgens
|
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What originates in the adrenal cortex and gonads and primarily affects maturation and function of secondary sex organs (female)?
|
Estrogens
|
|
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what originates from both ovaries and placenta and mediates the menstrual cycle and maintains pregnancy?
|
Progestins
|
|
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What originates in the adrenal cortex and maintains salt and water?
|
Mineralocorticoids
|
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What originates in the adrenal cortex and affects mainly metabolism in diverse ways; decreases inflammation and increases resistance to stress?
|
Glucocorticoids
|
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The production and secretion of steroid hormones are controlled by _____ hormones which are either _____ or _____.
|
Trophic
Proteins Peptides |
|
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What is it about hormone molecules which allows it to freely pass through the plasma membrane of cells into the cytosol?
|
Non-polar molecules
|
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Parafollicular or C cells in the thyroid are the major source of what?
|
Calcitonin
|
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Calcitonin has the ability to _____ blood calcium levels at least in part by effects on what two target organs?
|
Bone and Kidney
Decrease |
|
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Calcitonin suppresses resorption of bone by inhibiting the activity of _____, thus releasing calcium and _____ into the blood.
|
Osteoclasts
Phosphorus |
|
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Calcium and phosphorus are prevented from being lost by reabsorption in the _____ _____.
What overides this? |
Kidney tubules
Calcitonin |
|
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What is the most prominent factor in controlling calcitonin secretion?
|
Extracellular concentration of ionized calcium
|
|
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Calcitonin is _____ _____ in adults.
Why? |
Not Required
Parathyroid hormone is the main regulator of calcium in the blood and pretty much does the job. |
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What is the small gland located on the front of the neck and made up of two lobes that are connected by a band of tissue known as the isthmus?
|
Thyroid gland
|
|
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What is the function of the thyroid gland?
|
Convert iodine to T3 and T4
|
|
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What amino acid is combined with iodine to make T3 and T4?
|
Tyrosine
|
|
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Thyroid hormones _____ glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, protein synthesis, and degredation.
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Increases
|
|
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Thyroid hormone stimulates bone _____ as a result of ossification and fusion of the growth plates.
|
Maturation
|
|
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Thyroid hormones are _____ hormones that exert their effects via transcriptional processes.
|
Lipophilic
|
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What is another name for ADH?
How many amino acids does it have? Where is it secreted from? |
Vasopressin
9 Posterior pituitary |
|
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What is the target of the ADH hormone?
|
Collecting ducts of the kidney
|
|
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How does ADH stimulate water reabsorption?
|
Inserting water channels or aquaporins which allows flow back into the blood
|
|
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What is the most important variable regulating antidiuretic hormone secretion?
|
Plasma osmolarity 9conc. of solutes in blood)
|
|
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What receptors both sense osmolarity and cause secretion of ADH?
Where are they found? |
Osmoreceptors
Hypothalamus |
|
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Ethanol and caffeine _____ ADH release while nicotine _____ its release.
|
Decrease
Increase |
|
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Sweating causes _____ in ADH, while drinking large amounts of water causes _____ in ADH.
|
Increase
Decrease |
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Hyposecretion of ADH results in _____ _____.
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Diabetes insipidus
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What is the one steroid hormone that is not derived from cholesterol?
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Retinoic acid
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What hormones are derived from tyrosine and include the thyroid hormones (_____) and the catecholamines (_____)?
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Amine hormones
T3 and T4 epi., norepi., dopamine |
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What are the proteins with a defined, genetically coded structure and include the Ant. and Post. pituitary hormones, pancreatic hormones and PTH?
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Polypeptide hormones
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Polypeptide hormones have the following characteristics:
1. They are synthesized in _____ form. 2. They are usually transported _____ in the plasma. 3. They are stored in _____ _____. 4. They act by binding to a _____ _____ receptor and generating a _____ _____. |
Precursor (pre-prohormone)
Unbound Secretory Vesicles Plasma membrane, Second messenger |
