Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
72 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Short-Term Memory
|
aka "Working Memory"
- Functional system that operates to temporarily store & use recently presented info; also an interactive workspace - 7 +/- 2 item capacity - 20-30 second retention period |
|
|
3 Systems of Working Memory
|
1) Phonological Loop (Info we hear)
2) Visuospatial Sketchpad (Info we see) 3) Central Executive (Coordinates above info) |
|
|
Interactive Workspace
|
- Integrates info from working memory about present situation & past experiences
- Interface between perception, long-term memory, & action |
|
|
Long-Term Memory
|
System w/ unlimited capacity and storage duration
Stems from hippocampus (removed from H.M. for epilepsy) 3 Systems: 1) Episodic 2) Semantic 3) Procedural |
|
|
Episodic Memory
|
A system of Long-Term Memory
- Personal experiences associated w/ a specific time & context - Type of Declarative Knowledge ex. Successful sport experience, high school graduation |
|
|
Semantic Memory
|
A system of Long-Term Memory
- Factual & conceptual knowledge - Type of Declarative Knowledge ex. High school colors |
|
|
Procedural Memory
|
A system of Long-Term Memory
- Skills and actions - Type of Procedural Knowledge ex. Riding a bike |
|
|
Declarative Knowledge
|
- Episodic & Semantic Memory
- What to do - It is verbalized - Consciously aware |
|
|
Procedural Knowledge
|
- Procedural Memory
- How to do a skill, often w. little/no conscious thought - Difficult to verbalize - Automaticity |
|
|
"Choking"
|
During a high-stress situation, one switches from procedural knowledge/automaticity to declarative knowledge → harms performance
|
|
|
Explicit Memory Tests
|
- Recognition: you recognize the correct response when given alternatives
- Recall: you can provide the correct response w/o cues → Free (random order) → Serial (remember order of info) |
|
|
Implicit Memory Tests
|
- Ask person to verbally describe how to perform a skill, then to perform it
- Relevant for procedural memory |
|
|
Causes of Forgetting
|
- Trace Decay (forgetting due to passage of time)
- Proactive Interference (activity occurs prior to presentation of info to be remembered) - Retroactive Interference (activity occurs during retention interval) - Attribute similarity - Capacity limits exceeded |
|
|
Primacy-Recency Effects
|
Learning effect where information presented at the beginning and end of practice are more readily learned
|
|
|
Von-Restorft Effect
|
Learning effect where information presented in the middle should be dramatic in order to be learned
|
|
|
Priming
|
Learning technique where a brief introduction of a new skill is given prior to practicing the skill
|
|
|
Enhancing Memory
|
- Use location & distance characteristics
- Increase meaningfulness of a movement (metaphoric images, verbal labels) - Intention to remember (paying conscious attention) - Subjective organization (chunking, mnemonics) - Specificity Principle (↑ similarity bet. practice & test contexts) |
|
|
Performance
|
-Act of executing a skill
-Temporary -May not be due to practice -Observable -Influenced by perf. variables |
|
|
Learning
|
-Relatively permanent ∆ in capability to execute a skill as a result of practice
-Inferred from performance -Not influenced by performance variables |
|
|
Fitts & Posner's 3-Stage Model of Learning
|
1) Cognitive Stage
- What are the movement requirements? - Inconsistent performance - Focus on producing ea. movement - Lack synchronization - Many errors 2) Associative Stage (most time spent here) - Acquired basic mechanics of skill - Attentional focus broadens - Fewer errors (can identify/correct) - Most consistent performance 3) Autonomous Stage (not everybody reaches this) - Automatic movements - Perform mult. tasks simultaneously - Attention used for decision-making - Very few errors - Very consistent performance |
|
|
Gentile's 2-Stage Model of Learning
|
1) Initial Stage
- Acquire approp. movement coordination pattern for demands - Distinguish bet. Regulatory (matters) vs. Non-regulatory (doesn't matter) conditions ex. Size of object vs. color of object - Selective performance 2) Fixation/Diversification Stage - Closed Skill (Fixation) → consistent & accurate - Open Skill (Diversification) → adaptation of movement pattern |
|
|
Instructions for Fitts & Posner's 3-Stage Model
|
1) Cognitive:
- Compare to past movements - Simplify instructions - Opportunities to demonstrate competence - Detect/correct errors 2) Associative: - Visual search strategies - Effective feedback 3) Autonomous: - Design practice to devel. decision-making skills - Motivation to reach potential |
|
|
Instructions for Gentile's 2-Stage Model
|
1) Initial:
- Clearly communicate goal of task - Direct attention to regulatory features of environment 2) Fixation: - Design practice to reflect fixed conditions - Incorporate nonregulatory stimuli - Emphasize consistency 2) Diversification: - Enhance ability to monitor the environment - Design practice to develop decision-making skills |
|
|
Ways to Know You're Learning
|
1) Improved movement coordination
-Freezing degrees of freedom -Degrees of freedom gradually release -Change old coordination pattern 2) ↑ Muscle activity -Fundamental muscles activated -Correct activation pattern, fluid movement 3) Efficient energy expenditure -Expend less energy -Improve O₂ use -↓ RPE 4) Attention -Less conscious attention of movement characteristics -Selective attention -Extract more info from cues -Can shift bet. attentional styles 5) Error Detection & Correction -Use errors to rapidly correct movement (closed loop) -Use errors to guide future attempts (open loop) -Less dependent on instructor |
|
|
Performance Characteristic Demonstrating Learning
|
- Persistent improvement
- Consistency - Stability - Adaptability |
|
|
3 Performance/Learning Tests
|
1) Post-Test (directly after practice period)
2) Retention Test (after period of no practice, measures persistence) 3) Transfer Test (novel situation, measures stability/adaptability) |
|
|
Performance Curves
|
1) Negatively Accelerated
-Most common -Rapid initial improvement, decreasing gains *For ↓ times/errors, inverse graph* 2) Positively Accelerated -Little initial improvement, rapid gains after 3) S-Shaped -Rapid middle improvement 4) Linear -Sustained increases to high proficiency level 5) Performance Plateau -Devel. new strategies or affected by anxiety/fatigue -No ∆ in performance -Not permanent |
|
|
Power Law of Practice
|
When learning a new skill, there are large initial increases in performance, followed by slowing of the rate of improvement
|
|
|
Cognitive Mediation Theory
|
-Information is transformed into a cognitive memory representation
-Guides movement attempts -Aids in error detection/correction |
|
|
Dynamic Interpretation
|
Where you observe patterns of limb coordination; important for demonstrations
|
|
|
Things that should be demonstrated
|
1) New patterns of coordination (not just new parameter)
2) The entire skill 3) Limited use of slow motion |
|
|
Demonstrators
|
Expert Model
- Stronger cognitive representation - Accurate IMITATION of coordination pattern Novice Model *Instructor must be present - More actively engaged in learning process - See correct/incorrect aspects of movement - Can explore movement **Model-Observer Similarity important** |
|
|
Organization of Demonstrations
|
- Position of model (not in a circle)
- Limb position |
|
|
When/How Often Demonstrations Occur
|
- Before learner begins practice
- Interspersed early in learning process - Imposed of self-regulated schedule |
|
|
Effective Verbal Instructions
|
- Limit amount of information
- Focus attention on movement outcomes (action effect hypothesis) - Selective attention (explicit vs. implicit) [direct learner's attention] |
|
|
Verbal Cue
|
Words/Phrases to focus attention on key movement components or regulatory conditions
ex. Eye on the ball |
|
|
Learning Preferences
|
Analytical Learner:
- Works best in silence - Well-illuminated room - Works @ desk/table - Prefers guidelines/rules Global Learner: - Best w/ background noise - Soft lighting - Comfortable setting - Prefer less structure |
|
|
Modal Strength
|
A preference for how we like to receive information
- Visual = demonstrations - Kinesthetic = simulation - Analytical = specific guidelines - Auditory = verbal description, pace/rhythm |
|
|
Intrinsic Feedback
|
Information we receive from our sensory systems
|
|
|
Augmented Feedback
|
External information that adds to intrinsic info. from our senses
-Learners trust this over intrinsic feedback ex. Looking @ coach, watching video, looking @ time →Knowledge of Results (KR) = Characteristics of outcome [good to learn skill complexity] →Knowledge of Performance (KP) = Characteristics of performance [redundant w/ intrinsic] Functions: -No access to intrinsic feedback -Enhances intrinsic feedback -Error correction -Reinforcement -Motivation |
|
|
Guidance Hypothesis
|
Augmented feedback should guide the learner - high frequencies can cause dependency
|
|
|
Types of Augmented Feedback
|
1) Faded Feedback - gradual frequency reduction
2) Bandwidth Feedback - provided if error falls outside a given range 3) Summary Feedback - withheld until after completion of set of trials (given for each trial) 4) Average Feedback - summary feedback of most common error 5) Self-Regulated - learner asks if they did well (occurs during a successful outcome) |
|
|
Timing of Augmented Feedback
|
- Terminal (provided after skill execution)
- Concurrent (provided during skill, esp. when intrinsic not avail.) Delays: - Feedback-delay interval (time to process intrinsic feedback) - Post-feedback interval (time to determine new movement plan) |
|
|
Sandwich Approach
|
Form of Augmented Feedback
1) Positive statement 2) Future-oriented instructions 3) Encouragement |
|
|
Errors vs. Correct Aspects of Augmented Feedback
|
Highlight errors = facilitate skill acquisition
Highlight correct aspects = confirm progress, encourage persistence |
|
|
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Augmented Feedback
|
Descriptive = Describes error
Prescriptive = Prescribes what needs to be done |
|
|
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Augmented Feedback
|
Quantitative = numerical value indicating magnitude
Qualitative = quality of performance *Initial learning → qualitative |
|
|
Constant Practice
|
Maintaining 1 variation of a skill during practice
- Greater influence on performance during initial rehearsal - Less errors during practice |
|
|
Variable Practice
|
Including several variations of a skill during practice
--Schema Theory - Greater influence on learning - Enhances adaptability - Potential for ↓ motivation |
|
|
Blocked Practice
|
Practicing 1 skill variation repeatedly before moving to a different variation
- A form of variable practice |
|
|
Random Practice
|
Practicing multiple skill variations in a random order
|
|
|
Serial Practice
|
aka Repeated-Blocked
Repeating sets of blocked practice |
|
|
Contextual Interference (CI)
|
- Disruption due to practicing multiple skills
- Greater learning results from a higher CI Blocked: Low CI, greater performance, potential for false confidence Random: High CI, greater learning, potential for decreased motivation; more practice w/ retrieval |
|
|
Elaboration Hypothesis
|
Random practice makes rehearsal more meaningful & distinctive
|
|
|
Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis
|
aka Forgetting Hypothesis
Random practice requires repeated learning of each task; forced to regenerate solutions to movement problems |
|
|
Uses of Variable Practice
|
Initial stage of learning = Blocked Practice
Children = Blocked Relearning = Random |
|
|
Overlearning
|
Practice goes beyond what is needed to achieve a specific performance
- Greater learning - Strengthens schema - Improves coordination - Point of diminishing returns (no benefit beyond certain amount) Greater amounts = boredom, LTM retrieval less likely |
|
|
Massed Practice
|
- Short amounts of rest between sessions
- Fewer but longer sessions |
|
|
Problems of Massed Practice
|
- Fatigue
- Reduced cognitive effort (practice performance ↓ in final trials) - Memory consolidation (transfer into LTM requires time w/o practicing same skill) |
|
|
Distributed Practice
|
- Long amounts of rest between sessions
- More but shorter sessions *Generally better than massed *Greatest learning w/ retention test |
|
|
Rest Interval for Massed Practice
|
-Short/no rest between trials
-Rest time < Action *For discrete skills, those in advanced stage of learning (longer attention span, good physical condition) |
|
|
Rest Interval for Distributed Practice
|
-Long amount of rest between trials
-Rest ≥ Action *For continuous/complex skills, higher energy requirements, or high risk activities |
|
|
Reasons to use Part Practice
|
1) Simplifies the skill
2) Can experience early success 3) Extra time spent on problematic components |
|
|
Task Complexity
|
- # of components
- Information processing demands - High --> part practice |
|
|
Task Organization
|
- Interdependence of components (flow)
- High --> Whole practice |
|
|
High Complexity, Low Organization
|
Part Practice
|
|
|
Low Complexity, High Organization
|
Whole Practice
|
|
|
High Complexity, High Organization
|
Whole Practice
|
|
|
Part Practice Strategy - Fractionization
|
- Asymmetric bimanual coordination (ex. swimming, piano playing)
- Practice limb movements separately (teach hardest first) |
|
|
Part Practice Strategy - Segmentation
|
1) Part-Whole Method (practice each part separately, then put all parts together)
2) Progressive Part Method (practice pt. A --> pt. B --> pt. A + B --> pt. A + B + C) |
|
|
Part Practice Strategy - Simplification
|
- Reduce task difficulty
- Modify objects (ex. juggling) - Reduce attention demands (add equipment, change environment complexity) - Add auditory cues (metronome) - Simulators - Sequencing skill progression (ex. t-ball --> ball machine --> pitcher) |
|
|
Attentional Cueing
|
Directing attention to a specific aspect of the skill while engaged in whole practice
|
