Carbohydrate Metabolism

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Active transport

Back 1

Form of active transport across a biological membrane in which a transporter protein couples the movements of ions to that of another molecule or requires energy to transport against the concentration gradient.

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Back 2

Energy currency of the cell. It consists of a nitrogenous base, and high energy phosphate bonds.

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Anabolic

Back 3

Metabolic pathways that build compounds.

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Beta-oxidation

Back 4

The carbon chains of fatty acids are broken down to units that form acetyl-CoA, in the mitochondria.

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Catabolic

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Metabolic pathways that break larger molecules into smaller.

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Cellular respiration

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Break down of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, respectively, in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. These reactions release energy that is used to add a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP.

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Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

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Acetyl Co-A produced from different food sources such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins enters a cycle of reactions in order to create NADH and FADH2. Occurs in the mitochondria of a cell.

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Cori cycle

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In a muscle cell under anaerobic conditions, glucose is converted to lactate which is carried via the blood to the liver. This generates 2 ATP.

The lactate is converted back to glucose in the liver and transported again via the blood to muscle for further utilization. The conversion of lactate to glucose uses 6 ATP.

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Disaccharides

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Carbohydrates with two sugar molecules bonded together. Example- lactose (milke sugar) is made up by bonding between fructose and galactose.

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electron transport chain

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A series of electron carriers (membrane protein complexes) in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

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Facilitated diffusion

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Molecules that faciliatate the movement of particles from one side of the membrane to the other. Example- Glut 4 transporters faciliatate the movement of glucose molecules.

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Fermentation

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A process of conversion of pyruvate to lactate in absence of oxygen.

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Glucagon

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A hormone released by the pancreas during fasting (low glucose levels). It is invovled in the regulation of glucose levels in the body by "turning on" gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen).

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Gluconeogenesis

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process of building new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate sources such as certain amino acids.

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Glycogen

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Glucose storage molecule. A polymer of glucose units. Also referred to as a poysaccharide.

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Glycogenesis

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A process of synthesis of glycogen from glucose.

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Glycolysis

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Catabolic pathway where glucose is broken down to puruvate and results in a net prouction of 2 ATP molecules. Occurs in the cytosol of the cell.

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Insulin

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A hormone released by the beta cells of the pancreas when the body is in a fed state (high glucose levels). It is invovled in the regulation of glucose levels in the body by "turning on" glycogen production (glycogenesis).

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Monosaccharides

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Carbohydrates with one sugar molecule. Examples are glucose, fructose and galactose

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Polysaccharides

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Carbohydrates with several sugar molecules bonded by different kinds of bonds, forming complex structures. Example- Starch- Amylose

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Pyruvate (Pyruvic Acid)

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It is an end product of glucose break down.

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Substrate-level phosphorylation

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A phosphate group from a substrate is directly added to ADP to make ATP, as opposed to oxidative phosphorylation.

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Triglyceride

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Fat storage molecule consisting of glycerol backbone linked to three individual fatty acid chains.

Front 24

Fatty acids, amino acids and sugars, like glucose, can be enter the ____________ as ______________.

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Fatty acids, amino acids and sugars, like glucose, can be enter the Citric Acid Cycle as Acetyl CoA.

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Why are sugars, like glucose, phosphorylated after entering the cell through transporters?

Back 25

Sugars have a netural charge. When a phosphate is added, the sugar has a negative charge and cannot leave the cell.

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What happens to pyruvate in the presence of oxygen? What happent to pyruvate in the absence of oxygen?

Back 26

In the presence of oxygen, it is converted to acetyl CoA and enters the Citric Acid Cycle.

In the absence of oxygen, it is converted to lactate through the process of fermentation.

Front 27

What molecules that serve as electron carriers are generated by the Citric Acid? Where do they travel after the Citric Acid Cycle?

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NADH and FADH2 are produced by the Citric Acid Cycle and carry electrons and hydrogens to the Electron Transport Chain.

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During the reactions of the Electron Transport Chain, hydrogens are pumped by complexes __________ and move from the _______ to the _________ of the inner mitochondrial membrane.

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During the reactions of the Electron Transport Chain, hydrogens are pumped by complexes one, three and four and move from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space of the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Front 29

How many ATP are produced for every one molecule of glucose under aerobic conditions?

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30 ATP. Each molecule of glucose produces 2 ATP by glycolysis, 2 ATP by the Citric Acid Cycle and 26 ATP by cellular respiration.

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What happens to glucose under anaerobic conditions?

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In the absence of oxygen, glucose is converted to pyruvate via glycolysis. Pyruvate undergoes fermentation to generate lactate. Lactate enters the Cori Cycle.

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What are the three fates of pyruvate in carbohydrate metabolism?

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When oxygen is present, pyruvate will go through cellular respiration to make ATP when energy is needed in the cell. When oxygen is absent, pyruvate will enter the Cori Cycle. When ample ATP is available in the cell, pyruvate will be converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis.

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Why is the Cori Cycle important for red blood cells?

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Red blood cells lack mitochondria. Therefore, the primary source of energy comes from obtaining glucose from the liver. The glucose can be converted to lactate in red blood cells, a process that generates 2 ATP.