Module 3-4

Front 1

Magnification

Back 1

"Make bigger" - depth

Front 2

Resolution

Back 2

"Make clearer" - clarity

Front 3

Electron Microscope

Back 3

Could magnify 7000x. Use beams of electrons instead of light.

Front 4

Name two types of lenses found in a compound microscope

Back 4

objective and ocular

Front 5

objective lens

Back 5

the lens closest to the specimen in the microscope. Objective forms the initial image.

Front 6

ocular lens

Back 6

the eyepiece where we look in to view the

specimen under the microscope. The ocular lens magnifies the image and collects it.

Front 7

iris diaphragm

Back 7

In a compound microscope - controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. Helps control the focus. Located above the condenser and below the stage.

Front 8

Condenser

Back 8

Condenser is a set of lenses that focuses the light through the specimen into the objective lens in a compound microscope

Front 9

What is the best way to avoid breaking a slide when using a compound light microscope?

Back 9

Start viewing the specimen at low magnification, use coarse and then fine focus to see the image clearly and then switch to higher magnification.

Once you are at higher magnification, do not focus using the coarse focus knob, only the fine focus knob.

Front 10

As you magnify an image, the diameter of the field of view increases or decreases?

Back 10

decreases

Front 11

Confocal microscope

Back 11

forms image of small things - like a cell

Front 12

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Back 12

forms an image from electrons passing through a specimen

Front 13

Light microscope

Back 13

an instrument that uses visible light and magnifying lenses to examine small objects not visible to the naked eye, or in finer detail than the naked eye allows.

Front 14

Scanning electron microscope

Back 14

an electron microscope in which the surface of a specimen is scanned by a beam of electrons that are reflected to form an image.

Front 15

Dissecting microscope

Back 15

optical microscope variant designed for low magnification observation of a sample, typically using light reflected from the surface of an object rather than transmitted through it.

Front 16

chromosome

Back 16

circular shape, consists of a DNA molecule, and small number of proteins

Front 17

Gene

Back 17

Gene = segment of DNA that contains information for building the RNA molecule or a polypeptide

Front 18

nucleoid (prokaryote)

Back 18

is where DNA is contained in a single, condensed, circular chromosome.

Front 19

Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are prokaryotes, which means?

Back 19

They have no nucleus and generally no membrane-bound organelles

Front 20

cell membrane (prokaryote)

Back 20

Cell membrane which as for all cells controls what enters or leaves the cell.

Front 21

Cytoplasm (prokaryote)

Back 21

contains enough proteins and other molecules for the cell’s functions.

Front 22

plasmids (prokaryote)

Back 22

Plasmids which are small circular pieces of chromosome in most prokaryotes.

Front 23

Ribosomes (prokaryote)

Back 23

Ribosomes which help produce the proteins within the cytoplasm.

Front 24

Cell wall (prokaryote)

Back 24

Cell wall which is a tough fibrous layer that surrounds the plasma membrane and functions to protect and give shape to the cell. (See Figure 7.5 in your textbook.)

Front 25

flagella (prokaryote)

Back 25

Flagella which are thin extension of the cell and lack a membrane covering. Flagella rotate to provide locomotion. Not all prokaryotes have flagella.

Front 26

cytoskeleton (prokaryote)

Back 26

Cytoskeleton which are long thin protein fibres inside the cell. The cytoskeleton fibres help with cell division and help maintain cell shape.

Front 27

Eukaryotes

Back 27

Have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

Front 28

endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (eukaryote organelle)

Back 28

continuous with an extensive series of membrane-bound sacs. The ER extends from the nuclear envelope out into the cytoplasm.

knobby looking structures are ribosomes that attach to the membrane. They synthesize proteins that will be inserted into the plasma membrane, secreted to the cell exterior, or shipped to an organelle.

Front 29

golgi body (eukaryote organelle)

Back 29

- Stack of flat, membrane-bounded sacs

- 
Involved in secretion

- 
Involved in modifying proteins and lipids

Front 30

lysosome (eukaryote organelle)

Back 30

= digestive Center.

The organelles interior, or lumen, is acidic because proton pumps in the lysosome membrane import enough hydrogen ions to maintain a pH of 5.0

Contain 40 enzymes

Front 31

vacuole (eukaryote organelle)

Back 31

Contains transporters for selected molecules

acts as storage unit for oils, carbs, water, or toxins

Front 32

mitochondria (eukaryote organelle)

Back 32

oxidation-reduction reactions, ATP synthesis

- Bound by a double membrane


- Inner membrane is folded into cristae


- ATP is made here


- Contains its own genetic material

Front 33

chloroplast (eukaryote organelle)

Back 33

production of ATP in plants through photosynthesis

Front 34

peroxisomes (eukaryote organelle)

Back 34

oxidation of fatty acids

- Roughly spherical 


- Bound by a single membrane

- 
Filled with enzymes, predominately catalase (breaks down H2O2)

- 
Involved with oxidation of fatty acids

Front 35

Difference between Rough ER and Smooth ER

Back 35

Rough ER has ribosomes and functions primarily as a protein-manufacturing Centre

Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and functions primarily as a lipid-processing Centre.

Front 36

flagella + cilla

Back 36

like a tail propelling through water.

when present in the plasma membrane their rotation allows aquatic cells to swim through the water. Can move the cell quickly.

Front 37

If you place an animal cell in a hypotonic solution, you would expect the cell to...?

Back 37

lyse

Front 38

active transport requires (3)?

Back 38

1. specific membrane proteins.

2. changes in conformation

3. ATP

Front 39

actin

Back 39

major protein in Microfilaments

Front 40

keratin

Back 40

major protein in intermediate filaments

Front 41

α and β tubulin

Back 41

major protein in microtubules

Front 42

Tight junction

Back 42

Tight Junction = a cell-cell attachment composed of specialized proteins in the plasma membranes of adjacent animal cells. (ex. looks like quilting). Watertight seal, this type of junction is found in cells that form a barrier - such as epithelial cells lining your stomach and intestines. They can loosen for specific purposes and then retighten later - this makes them dynamic.

Front 43

Desmosomes

Back 43

Desmosomes = cell-cell attachements particularly common in animal epithelial cells and certain muscle cells. (ex. rivets that hold pieces of sheet metal together). Proteins that bind together the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.

Front 44

Tight junction facts (4)

Back 44

1 Found in animal tissues.

2 Found in tissues lining internal cavities +organs.

3 They seal adjoining cells.

4 Tight junctions allow for communication and coordination between adjacent cells.

Front 45

phophorylation cascade

Back 45

A phosphorylation cascade is a type of signal transduction pathway in which a series of molecules are phosphorylated in turn.

Front 46

How can two cells have different responses to a signal?

Back 46

Different cells possess different collections of proteins that allow for alternate signal transduction pathways and, as such, variable responses.

Front 47

Signal Transduction Pathway

Back 47

binding of a signal molecule to a membrane signal receptor causes a conformational or shape change, which can then set off a chain reaction known as a signal-transduction pathway.

Front 48

second messengers

Back 48

when a signal molecule binds to a plasma membrane receptor the change in the shape of the receptor triggers the formation of many second messengers—small non-protein molecules or ions that can diffuse quickly in a cell.

Front 49

phosphorylation

Back 49

phosphorylation = addition of a phosphate group to a substrate

Front 50

exergonic

Back 50

release of energy (exer - like exit)

Front 51

endergonic

Back 51

absorption of energy

Front 52

redox reaction (reduction, oxidation) reaction

Back 52

redox reaction (reduction, oxidation) = the loss or gain of one electron.

An electron can be transferred completely from one atom to another, or an electron can simply shift its position in a covalent bond

Front 53

electron carrier

Back 53

electron carrier = when something donates electrons to other molecules - has reducing power (ex. NADH)

Front 54

How does free energy synthesize ATP?

Back 54

in cells, the change in free energy that occurs during the oxidation of glucose is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and P.

Front 55

What macromolecule is ATP?

Back 55

= ATP is a nucleotide as it has nitrogenous base, a sugar (ribose) and phosphate groups.

Front 56

ATP

Back 56

- high potential energy

- not stored

- glucose makes ATP through photosynthesis

- when coming from a plant it goes back into glucose and then once inside our bodies, glucose turns it back into ATP (it does this through cellular respiration OR fermentation

Front 57

cellular respiration

Back 57

Reactions that produces ATP in an electron transport chain (a process to produce ATP from glucose.)

Front 58

Name the four steps of cellular respiration

Back 58

1. substance with high potential energy (glucose) does glycolysis

2. pyruvate processing

3. citric acid cycle (Krebs?)

4. electron transport and chemiosmosis

Front 59

Fermentation

Back 59

allows glycolysis to produce ATP in the absence of the electron acceptor required by the ETC.

Front 60

ATP made by these two processes in cellular respiration:

Back 60

1. oxidative phosphorylation

2. Substrate-level phosphorylation

Front 61

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Back 61

occurs when a phosphate group from a substrate is directly transferred to ADP, resulting in ATP

Front 62

oxidative phosphorylation

Back 62

occurs when ATP is made indirectly through the energy released from oxidation reactions

Front 63

Glycolysis occurs where?

Back 63

glycolysis occur in the cytosol. ATP molecules are needed at the start to produce more ATP in this reaction. results in ATP and NADH

Front 64

citric acid cycle

Back 64

circular not linear cycle - It starts with citrate which becomes citric acid when protonated.

Front 65

Electron Transport Chain

Back 65

A series of redox reactions, during which electrons are passed from one compound to another compound that is more electronegative. As the electrons are passed down the chain, energy is gradually released and ultimately is used to make ATP through a process called chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation

Front 66

Electrochemical gradient

Back 66

Trying to get protons back into the matrix

Front 67

Chemiosmosis

Back 67

when protons move through ATP synthase, the protein spins and generates ATP.

Front 68

ATP synthase

Back 68

A large membrane-bound protein complex in chloroplasts, mitochondria, and some bacteria that uses the energy of protons flowing through it to synthesize ATP.

Front 69

aerobic respiration

Back 69

organisms that need oxygen as an electron acceptor for the ETC

Front 70

anaerobic respiration

Back 70

organisms that depend on electron accepters other than oxygen.

Front 71

most of the work in cells are endergonic or exergonic?

Back 71

endergonic. They absorb energy. That's why ATP is needed to drive it.

Front 72

glycolysis

Back 72

10 step reaction where glucose is broken into pyruvate

Front 73

pyruvate processing

Back 73

converts pyruvate into acetyl CoA.

Front 74

Citric Acid Cycle

Back 74

8 step reaction cycle that begins with acetyl CoA and ATP is produced and CO2 is released. Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria in eukaryotes.

Front 75

Feedback inhibition

Back 75

How ATP is regulated. Occurs when an enzyme in a pathway is inhibited by the product of the reaction sequence. The product molecule “feeds back” to stop the reaction sequence when the product os abundant. Meaning - if there is enough ATP at the time, then the body will store the glucose for when they really need ATP and its scarce.

Front 76

chemiosmotic hypothesis

Back 76

Electron transport chains generate ATP indirectly, by the creation of a proton-motive force.

Front 77

What is the function of a fermentation pathway?

Back 77

to generate NAD+ from NADH, so that glycolysis can continue

Front 78

Per Krebs cycle how much ATP is produced and how much NADH is produced?

Back 78

2 ATP; 3 NADH

Front 79

In the electron transport chain, what is the final electron acceptor?

Back 79

oxygen

Front 80

Something is embedded in the ETC in the cristae or inner membrane... what is it?

Back 80

The components of an electron transport chain consist of a series of enzyme complexes embedded in the cristae or inner membrane folds of mitochondria. There are many such chains in a single mitochondrion.

Front 81

isomer

Back 81

An isomer = a compound that has the same molecular formula but a different structural formula.

Front 82

where does the phosphate come from?

Back 82

The phosphate comes from the substrate of the reaction.

Front 83

Name some electron donors in the ETC

Back 83

Both NADH and FADH2 act as electron donors in the electron transport chain.

Front 84

Phospholipids can form all of the following structures in water except which one?

Back 84

monolayers

Front 85

Photosynthesis

Back 85

Conversion of light energy to chemical energy stored in the bonds of carbohydrates.

Front 86

compartments in the chloroplast

Back 86

grana and thylakoid

Front 87

Calvin Cycle

Back 87

the reactions that reduce carbon dioxide and produce sugar.

Starts with enzyme rubisco, which catalyzes the addition of CO2 to a five-carbon compound. Subsequent reactions use ATP and NADPH synthesized in the light reactions and make carbs.

Front 88

Two linked set of reactions from photosynthesis: light capturing and the other calvin cycle -

describe what they do..?

Back 88

two linked sets of reactions = one triggered by light and one by the calvin cycle (which requires the products of the light capturing reactions). The light capturing reactions produce oxygen from water, the Calvin cycle produces sugar from CO2.

Front 89

photon

Back 89

photons = a discrete packet of light energy; a particle of light

Front 90

chlorophylls

Back 90

chlorophylls = absorb blue and red regions of the visible spectrum. This makes plants look green because they reflect and transmit green instead of absorbing it.

Front 91

carotenoids

Back 91

carotenoids = absorb in the blue and green parts of the visible spectrum.

Front 92

If chlorophylls is the main thing in photosynthesis, then what do carotenoids do?

Back 92

They quench free radicals by accepting or stabilizing unpaired electrons. They protect chlorophyll molecules from harm.

Front 93

fluoresence

Back 93

fluorescence = when the excited electron simply falls back to its ground state, and some of the absorbed energy is released as heat and the rest is released as electromagnetic radiation (light).

Front 94

photosystem

Back 94

photosystem = one of two types of units, consisting of a central reaction centre surrounded by antenna complexes, that is responsible for the light-depend reactions of photosynthesis

Front 95

What is the photosynthesis reaction?

Back 95

6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Front 96

antenna complex

Back 96

antenna complex = when a red or blue photon strikes a pigment molecule in the antenna complex the energy is absorbed and an electron is excited in response. This energy - but not the electron itself - is passed to a nearby chlorophyll molecule, where another electron is excited in response.

Front 97

reaction centre

Back 97

reaction centre = excited electrons are transferred to a specialized chlorophyll molecule that acts as an electron acceptor.

Front 98

photosystem 1

Back 98

photosystem 1 = a photosystem that contains a pair of P700 chlorophyll molecules and uses absorbed light energy to produce NADPH

Front 99

photosystem 2

Back 99

photosystem 2 = a photosystem that contains a pair of P680 chlorophyll molecules and uses absorbed light energy to split water into protons and oxygen and to produce ATP.

Front 100

photophosporylation

Back 100

photophosporylation = the production of ATP molecules using the energy released as light-excited electrons flow through an electron transport chain during photosynthesis. Involves generation of a porton-motive force during electron transport and its use to drive ATP synthesis.

Front 101

cyclic-photophosphorylation (cyclic electron flow)

Back 101

cyclic-photophosphorylation = path of electron flow during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in which photosystem 1 transfers excited electrons back to the electron transport chain of photosystem 2, rather than to NADP+. Also called cyclic electron flow. Generates ATP but doesn't produce NADPH.

Front 102

Z scheme (non cyclic electron flow)

Back 102

non-cyclic electron flow = path of electron flow in which electrons pass from photystem 2 to photosystem 1 and ultimate to NADP+ during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Originally called the Z scheme.

Front 103

resonance

Back 103

transfer of energy among pigment molecules

Front 104

photorespiration

Back 104

occurs when levels of CO2 are low and O2 are high. Less sugar is produced.

Front 105

what happens when an excited electron is passed to an electron acceptor in a photosystem?

Back 105

energy in sunlight is transformed to chemical energy

Front 106

In PS 2 light energy is converted into chemical energy

Back 106

when excited electrons from the reaction centre are accepted by pheophytin, reducing it.

Front 107

in PS 1 light energy is converted into chemical energy

Back 107

when excited electrons from the reaction centre are accepted by ferredoxin.

Front 108

How many molecules of water are needed to make a single molecule of glucose?

Back 108

6 molecules of water.

Front 109

Carbon Fixation

Back 109

the initial incorporation of CO2 into an organic compound.

Front 110

For every glucose molecule being made by a plant, how many rounds of the Calvin cycle are necessary?

Back 110

6

Front 111

How does P680 replace its lost electrons?

Back 111

P680 replaces its electrons by oxidizing water. This “splits” the water molecule, to supply electrons.

Front 112

How does P700 replace its lost electrons?

Back 112

P700 replaces its electrons by accepting the electron from the electron transport chain initiated by photosystem II.

Front 113

ATP generated by the passing of electrons from photosystem II to photosystem I is made through chemiosmosis. True or false.

Back 113

True

Front 114

Where do the products of noncyclic electron flow ultimately go?

Back 114

the calvin cycle

Front 115

What is the purpose of the cyclic electron flow?

Back 115

Because the Calvin cycle consumes more ATP than NADPH, cyclic electron flow allows the plant to keep the Calvin cycle running without accumulating NADPH.

Front 116

G1 - checkpoint 1

Back 116

checking if it has sufficient nutrients, cell size, lack of DNA damage, and or social signals

Front 117

G2 - checkpoint 2

Back 117

delays progress until chromosome replication is complete and any damaged DNA that is present is repaired

Front 118

M phase - checkpoint 3

Back 118

delays anaphase until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the spindle apparatus

Front 119

Name two regulators

Back 119

Cyclins and cyclin-dependeant kinases; they may help phosphorylate proteins required for the next cell-cycle phase

Front 120

cancer is characterized by

Back 120

1) loss of control at the G1 checkpoint

2) metastasis - tumours spreading thru the body