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212 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What is the order of taxonomy?
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Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
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Dumb kings play chess on fat Greek sculptures
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Spherical shapes
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coccus
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Rod shaped
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bacillis
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Bacteriophages
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A virus that infects and lyses certain bacteria
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Microscopes for living creatures
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Dark field, phase contrast, differential, interference, atomic force
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What is the difference between catabolic and anabolic?
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catabolic- breaks down
anabolic- builds up |
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What is the oil immersion objective?
How much can it magnify? How much can the microscope magnify total? |
It causes the light to not refract, it increases resolution
objective is 100x total is 1000x |
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What are the primary metric units used to measure the diameters of microbes?
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nanometers and micrometers
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Define microscopy
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Using light or electrons to magnify objects
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Explain the relevance of electromagnetic radiation to microscopy
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Has to do with the wavelength-
.2 micrometers |
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Empty magnification
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use too many lenses and can't see it
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List and explain two factors that determine resolving power
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The wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation.
The numerical aperture of the lens, the ability to gather light. |
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Explain the relationship between staining
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see the difference
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Simple vs. compound micro
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simple- 1 lens
compound- multiple lenses both under bright field |
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Confocal
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uses ultraviolet lasers and dyes
best at showing resolution and contrast |
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artifacts
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structures that appear in the electron image that aren't really present
(like nargals) |
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Difference between transmission and scanning electron microscopes
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transmission 2D- goes through the specimen
scanning 3D- only the outside |
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probe microscopes
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use microscopic probes that move over the surface of the specimen
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negative stains
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reveal the presence of negative stains
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flagellar stains
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reveal the presence of cilia and flagella
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gram stains
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positive- purple- thicker cell wall
negative- pink |
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acid fast stain
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stain alkaline (basic) structures
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endospore stain
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done with heat to get through outside
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basic dyes
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combine with and stain acidic structures, used more often
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Lennaeus
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only had 2 kingdoms
used binomial nomenclature |
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Whittaker
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used the 5 kingdoms
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5 ways to differentiate
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chemical
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Which of the follwing is smallest: micro, nano, deci
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nanometer
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nanometer is _____ to a micrometer
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a thousand times smaller
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Resolution is best described as
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C
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Curved glass lenses
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Refract/Bend
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What is important in making an image look bigger?
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thickness
curvature speed of the light |
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what is the difference between light and the electron microscopy
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D
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Which microscope produces a 3d image with a shadowed appearance?
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Differential Interference Contrast microscope
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which fothe following microscopes...
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confocal
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negative stains are also called
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capsule stains- forms a white capsule around it
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in the binomial system of nomenclature what is lowercase
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species
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What is the role of lenses in microscopy?
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Lenses focus either light or electrons to create a magnified image of a specimen.
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Why do electron microscopes have higher resolving power than light microscopes?
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Electrons have a smaller wavelength than visible light, leading to higher resolution.
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Which of the following is a lens found on electron microscopes but not on light microscopes?
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Projector lens
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Which type of microscope would allow the viewer to see ribosomes inside a cell?
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A transmission electron microscope
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Which of the following is a characteristic shared by both electron and light microscopes?
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They both employ the use of objective lenses.
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What is the fate of the electrons that interact with a specimen in an electron microscope?
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They may be absorbed, reflected, or refracted by the specimen.
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Why is a specimen smaller than 200 nm not visible with a light microscope?
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Anything smaller than 200 nm cannot interact with visible light.
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What happens to the light rays when they hit the specimen?
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They are reflected, refracted, or absorbed by the specimen.
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What is the role of the ocular lens?
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To recreate the image in the viewer’s eye
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What is meant by light rays being divergent?
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It is spreading out
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In a typical brightfield microscope (seen in the animation), at which point does magnification begin?
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The objective lens
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How are negative stains different from other types of stains?
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They stain the background, leaving the cells colorless.
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Which of the following is an example of a dye used in a simple stain?
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Methylene blue, crystal violet, etc.
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How does the malachite green stain enter an endospore?
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It is heated.
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Following an endospore stain, how does one distinguish endospores from vegetative cells?
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Vegetative cells are pink, endospores are green.
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What is the fundamental purpose of staining in light microscopy?
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To increase the contrast and visibility of the specimen
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How does a noncompetitive inhibitor reduce an enzyme’s activity?
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The inhibitor binds to the enzyme in a location other than the active site, changing the shape of the active site.
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What would be the likely outcome if you increased the concentration of substrate for an enzyme in the presence of a noncompetitive inhibitor?
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No change in enzyme activity would be observed.
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How is nevirapine used to treat HIV infections?
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It alters the active site of reverse transcriptase, decreasing that enzyme’s activity.
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How does a competitive inhibitor slow enzyme catalysis?
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They compete with the substrate for the enzyme's active site.
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What enables competitive inhibitors to bind to a specific enzyme?
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Competitive inhibitors have structures that resemble the enzyme’s substrate.
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If high amounts of sulfanilamide are in the presence of an enzyme whose substrate is PABA, what outcome is expected?
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PABA products will increase in concentration
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Which of the following statements regarding competitive inhibitors is true?
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Competitive inhibitors decrease the rate of enzyme activity.
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Why do all enzymatic reactions need activation energy?
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Energy is required to disrupt a substrate’s stable electron configuration.
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What is meant by the statement “Enzymes are biological catalysts”?
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Enzymes speed up the chemical reactions in living cells.
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Why are enzymes important to biological systems?
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Enzymes decrease the amount of activation energy required for chemical reactions to occur.
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What is the fate of an enzyme after it dissociates from the products of the reaction?
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The enzyme returns to its original configuration, ready to bind more substrate
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Which of the following features of a substrate can be accommodated by an enzyme's active site?
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The shape, size, and electron configuration of the substrate
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The first step of any enzymatic reaction is
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binding of the substrate by the enzymes.
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The amino acids in an enzyme can facilitate the reaction by
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accepting or donating electrons.
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Define wavelength
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The distance between two corresponding parts of a wave
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Should wavelengths be larger or smaller to enhance microscopy?
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Smaller wavelength
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Define magnification
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The apparent increase in size of an object
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Magnification results when a beam of radiation __________ as it passes through a lens.
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refracts (bends)
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Does light travel faster or slower through the lens compared to the air
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Slower through the lens
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What is the shape of the lens?
Why is this significant? |
Convex
It gathers light rays from the periphery and it focuses on the focal point then spread apart to produce an enlarged image |
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Define resolution
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the ability to distinguish between objects that are close together
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Define numerical aperture
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ability of a lens to gather light
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Do modern microscopes use longer or shorter wavelength radiation?
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shorter
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Define contrast
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The differences in intensity between two objects, or between an object and its background.
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When is light in phase?
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All of the waves' crests and troughs are aligned
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What is unique about he bright-field microscopes?
What are the two types? |
The background/field is illuminated.
Simple and compound |
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______ microscopes use the alignment or misalignment of light waves to achieve the desired contrast between a living specimen and the background
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Phase
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Define fluorescent microscopes
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use invisible ultraviolet light to cause specimens to radiate visible light, a phenomenon called fluorescence
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What kind of microscopes use lasers to illuminate fluorescent chemicals in a thin plane of a specimen?
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Confocal microscopes
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To what are simple microscopes similar?
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Magnifying glasses
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Define compound microscope
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A series of lenses for magnification
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Define objective lens
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the lens immediately above the object being magnified, does the magnification
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Oil immersion lenses increase what two things?
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Magnification and resolution
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Define working distance
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distance between the lens and the specimen
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Define ocular lenses
What is the name of a microscope with one, with two? |
Lenses closet to the eyes
monocular, binocular |
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How do you find total magnification?
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Multiply the magnification of the objective lens by the magnification of the ocular lens
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Define condenser lens
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Directs light through the specimen
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What is a photograph of a microscopic image called?
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Micrograph
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What does a dark-field microscope do?
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Utilizes a dark-field stop in the condenser that prevents light from directly entering the objective lens
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Which has more contrast a dark-field or light-field microscope?
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Dark-field
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What are phase microscopes used for?
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Examining living microorganisms or specimens that would be damaged or altered by attaching them to slides or staining them
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What kind of microscope is useful for observing cilia and flagella?
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Phase-contrast microscope
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What is unique about a differential interference contrast microscope?
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It splits the light beams into their component wavelengths, which enhances contrast and produces more unnatural colors.
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Dyes used for light microscopy are usually _______
why |
salts
because one of the two ions is colored |
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What is the colored portion of a dye known as?
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Chromophore
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What are acidic dyes also known as?
Where do they work best and what do they stain best? |
Anionic chromophores
Stain alkaline structures best in an acidic environment |
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Are acidic or basic dyes used more often?
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Basic because most cells are negatively charged
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What are the three simple dyes?
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Crystal violet, safranin, methylene blue
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Define differential stain
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More than one dye is used so that different cells, chemicals, or structures can be distinguished
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What are the three types of differential stain?
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Gram stain, acid-fast, and endospore stain
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Define mordant
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substance that binds to a dye and makes it less soluble
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Define decolorizing agent
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breaks down the cell wall of gram-negative cells, allowing the stain and mordant to be washed away
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What do endospores need in order to be dyed?
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heat
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Breaks a large molecule into smaller ones
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anabolism
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includes dehydration synthesis reactions
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catabolism
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is exergonic
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catabolism
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is endergonic
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anabolism
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involves the production of cell membrane constituents
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anabolism only
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includes hydrolytic reactions
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catabolism
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includes metabolism
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both anabolism and catabolism
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redox reactions
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transfer energy, transfer electrons, involve oxidation and reduction
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a reduced molecule
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has gained electrons
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activation energy
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is lowered by the action of organic catalysts
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Coenzymes
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are organic cofactors
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_______ process RNA molecules in eukaryotes
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Ribozymes
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What affects the function of enzymes
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substrate concentration, temperature, competitive inhibitors
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What are the four toxic forms of oxygen?
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singlet oxygen, superoxide radical, peroxide anion, hydroxyl radical
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superoxide radical
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toxic form of oxygen that is detoxified by superoxide demutase
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peroxide anion
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toxic form of oxygen which is detoxified by catalase or peroxidase
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hydroxyl radical
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most reactive of the toxic forms of oxygen
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singlet
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toxic neutralized by pigments (carotenoids)
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autotrophs
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inorganic, self
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heterotrophs
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organic, others
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chemotrophs
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chemicals
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phototrophs
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light
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CFU?
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Colony Forming Unit
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What are the four stages of microbial growth
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Lag, log, stationary, death
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What are the six types of media
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transport, defined, complex, selective, differential, anaerobic
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Complex media
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contains a variety of nutrients, the exact chemical composition is unknown
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Selective media
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favors one type of growth over another
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Defined
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the exact chemical composition is known
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Differential
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visible changes in the medium for different types
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anaerobic
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no oxygen in the medium
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transport media
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carry clinical specimens of bodily fluids
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Fungi
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eukaryotic, chytin for walls
molds, yeast |
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Protozoa
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eukaryotes, known for movement
psuedopodia, cilia, flagella |
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Algae
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eukaryotic, photosynthetic, not pathogenic (except red tides)
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What are the types of eukaryotes?
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Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, plants, animals
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What is a eukaryote?
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any organism made up of cells containing a nucleus composed of genetic material surrounded by a distinct membrane. Classification includes animals, plants, algae, fungi, and protozoa
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Define microbiology
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The study of microorganisms, how they work, interact with the environment, and interact with us.
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What is a prokaryote?
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smaller than a eukaryote
doesn't have a nucleus, no membrane bound organelles bacteria-cell wall is peptidoglycan Any unicellular microorganism that lacks a nucleus. Classification includes bacteria and archaea. |
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Linnaeus
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naming and classification system
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Leeuwenhoek
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father of microscopy
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Aristotle
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spontaneous generation
life springs out of nowhere (wrong) |
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Redi
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disproved spontaneous generation
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Needham
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tried to reprove spontaneous generation
didn't clean properly |
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Spallanzi
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proved Needham did experiments wrong
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Pasteur
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swan neck flask, germ theory
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Koch
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father of laboratory, created petri dishes
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Semmelweis
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handwashing
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Lister
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clean instruments, sterile, antiseptics
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Snow
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father of epidemiology
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Jenner
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father of vaccinations
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Ehrlich
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magic bullet- wanted to kill bacteria
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Fleming
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Penicillin- magic bullet
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Waksman
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coined antibiotic, streptomycin
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Domagk
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sulfanilamides
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Runs and tumbles
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run-going toward attractant
tumble-changing direction |
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Woese
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3 domains- bacteria, archaea, eukarya
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Glycocalyces
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gelatinous, sticky substance surrounding the outside of the cell
composed of polysaccharides, or polypeptides Capsule (tight) & slime layer (adhesion) |
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Flagella
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responsible for movement
long, propeller-like structures that extend beyond surface of cell for prokaryotes, these are rigid, protein helices that rotate magically go through and attach at tip |
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What is unique about spirochetes
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axial filaments/endoflagella
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Fimbrae
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short flagella
used for adhesion |
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Pili
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exchange genetic material
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Gram positive cells
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stain purple
thick layers of peptidoglycan teichoic acid |
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Gram Negative cells
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stain pink
thin layer of peptidoglycan LPS-endotoxin lipopolysaccharide Lipid A- can make you sick even if you kill it |
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NAG-NAM polymer
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makes up peptidoglycan
connected by tetrapeptide crossbridges |
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Acid fast cells
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Contain layers of wax-like lipid
Up to 60% of cell wall can be mycolic acids |
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What is a prokaryotic cytoplasmic membrane?
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phospholipid bilayer
maintains an electrochemical gradient |
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Gram staining process
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1. crystal violet- everything is purple
2. mordant- still purple 3. alcohol and acetone- positive-purple & negative-clear 4. safranin-positive-purple, negative-pink |
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Acid fast staining
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stains red, rest blue
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Endospore staining
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endospore is in suspended animation until conditions are right
spore: green vegetative: red |
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Diffusion
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goes through the phospholipid bilayer
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Facilitated Diffusion
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through a nonspecific channel protein
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Specific Facilitated Diffusion
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through a permease specific for one chemical, binding of substrate causes shape change in channel protein
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Osmosis
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diffusion of water through phopholipid bilayer or through protein channel
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Which cells go through crenation
lysis plasmolysis |
crenation-animal
lysis-animal plasmolysis-plant |
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uniport
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moving one molecule
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antiport
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one in one out, same concentration different types
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symport
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two coming in together
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Ribosome
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involved in protein synthesis
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cytoskeleton
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forms cell's basic shape
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eukaryotic flagella
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a ‘9+2’ arrangement of microtubules encased in the cell membrane and undulate
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Prokaryotic ribosomes are ___________
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70S (50S+30S)
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eukaryotic ribosomes are
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80S (60S+40S)
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Endosymbiotic Theory
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mitochondria and chloroplasts used to be alone, now they work together as part of the cell
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How do prokaryotes reproduce
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asexually
Binary fission (most common) Reproductive structure formation Spores or buds |
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special stains
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capsule and flagella
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antibodies are __________
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serological
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metric units of length
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meter 10^1 m
decimeter 10^-1 m centimeter 10^-2 m millimeter 10^-3 m micrometer 10^-6 m nanometer 10^-9 m picometer 10^-12 m |
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Three types of phosphorylation
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substrate level
oxidative photophosphorylation |
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Six types of enzymes
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hydrolases-hydrolysis of polymers
isomerases-rearrange atoms in a molecule ligases/polymerases- join molecules lyases- split molecules without adding water oxidoreductases-remove or add electrons transferases- transfer functional groups |
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Three types of enzyme inhibitors
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competitive
noncompetitive feedback (negative) inhibition |
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Two ways glucose is catabolized
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cellular respiration
fermentation |
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What are the three stages of glycolysis
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energy-investment stage
lysis stage energy-conserving stage |
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endproducts of glycolysis
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net 2 ATP
2 NADH 2 pyruvic acid |
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endproducts of fermentation
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NAD+
CO2 Lactic acid/ethanol acetyl CoA |
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Kreb's cycle endproducts
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GTP
FADH2 3 NADH 2 CO2 |
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Intermediate step endproducts
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2 CO2
2 acetyl CoA 2 NADH |
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What are the four carrier molecules of the Electron Transport Chain
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Flavoproteins
Ubiquinones Metal-containing (iron-sulfur) proteins Cytochromes |
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FADH2 = ____ ATP
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2 ATP
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NADH = _____ ATP
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3 ATP
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Amount of ATP made by eukaryotes?
prokaryotes? |
E- 36
P- 38 |
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chemiosmosis
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membrane maintains electrochemical gradient by keeping one or more chemicals in higher concentration on one side
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Beta oxidation
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cut every 2 carbon --> acetyl CoA
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1 GTP = _____ ATP
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1 ATP
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Each turn of the Kreb's cycle starting with acetyl CoA results in how much ATP?
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12 ATP
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Each turn of the Kreb's cycle starting with pyruvate results in how much ATP?
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15 ATP
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How many net ATP equivalents are produced from the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose, substrate-level phosphorylation
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41 ATP
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