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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
microbiology
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the science (study/knowledge) of microorganisms
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taxonomy
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-naming, describing, and classifying organisms
- grouped according to Genetics Ecology-> soil/water microbio. Morphology-> shape/structure Physiology->enzymes, functions |
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macroscopic life
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-things visible to the naked eye
-anything bigger than: 0.2 mm 200 micrometers 200,000 nanometers -most are unicellular (single-celled, more primative) |
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rhizopus
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-macroscopic
-black bread mold |
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microscopic life
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-anything too small to see with the naked eye
-anything smaller than 0.2mm 200 micrometers 200,000 nanometers |
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light microscopes
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-ranges from 0.2mm-0.2micrometers
-ranges from 200 micrometers to 200 nanometers -can see most: -Larger bacteria -Algae -Mycoplasma -Protozoa |
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mycoplasma
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-smallest bacteria
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electron microscopes
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- range from 0.2micrometers to 0.5nanometers under the best conditions
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3 Domains of Life
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-Archaea
-Bacteria -Eukarya -DKPCOFGS |
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R.H. Whittaker
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- developed old system that used 5 kingdoms in 1969
- 5 kingdoms: 1 Fungi 2 Animalia 3 Monera 4 Protista 5 Plantae -FAPP: eukaryotic, membrane bound organelles -Monera: bacteria, prokaryotic, have ribosomes |
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Woese
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-developed new system that uses 3 domains in 1978
-3 domains: 1 Archaea 2 Bacteria 3 Eukarya -classified organisms by examining their DNA to see relationships/differences -Monera: 2 kingdoms are the following: i. Archaea ii.Bacteria ----> there are no kingdoms in these 2 domains! |
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archaea
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-NOT BACTERIA!!
-prokaryotic -no murein in cell walls -cell membrane phospholipids have ETHER links -unicellular -NOT pathogenic -ex) thermophiles, methanogens, halophiles |
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bacteria
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-prokaryotic
-contain murein in cell walls -cell membrane phospholipids have ESTER links ex) -tuberculosis (Genus Mycobacterium) -cholera (salty water flooding) -bacillary dysentery (Genus Shigella); severe diarrhea where stool has blood |
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eukarya
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-eukaryotic
-possess nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes, some have chloroplasts -made up of 4 different kingdoms ex) Protists-->eukaryotic, mostly unicellular -simple plants (algae) -simple animals (protozoa) -simple molds (water molds) ---->WAP -Protozoans eat via PHAGOCYTOSIS ex) Amoebic dysentery |
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fungi
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-eukaryotic
-mostly multicellular -ABSORPTIVE HETEROTROPHS ex's) -Mushrooms -Molds >ringworms & athlete's foot -Yeasts(single-celled) >Candida Albicans- causes candidiasis and thrush (yeast infections) which is candidiasis in the throat |
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plants
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-eukaryotic
-multicellular -PHOTOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS ex) -bryophytes (mosses) -gymnosperms (pines) -angiosperms(flowering plants) |
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animals
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-eukaryotic
-ALL multicellular -INGESTIVE HETEROTROPHS ex) -sponges -mammals -worms >helminthes(worms) cause diseases >roundworms: ex)Ascaris-caught from eating undercooked meat >flatworms: tapeworms, flukes |
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evolution
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prokaryotes->protists->plants, animals, fungi
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viruses
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- NOT CONSIDERED IN ANY DOMAIN
-not considered living because they are ACELLULAR (w/o cells) >Cell Theory: cells are composed of: -cell membrane -cytoplasm (ribosomes) -nucleus (nucleoid in prokaryotes) -Viruses lack... -nucleus -mitochondria -ribosomes -INFECTIOUS AGENTS ex) colds, flu, measles, AIDS, hepatits, herpes |
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phycology
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-the study of algae
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mycology
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-the study of fungi
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protozoology
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-the study of protozoans
ex's) Amoebic Dysentery, Giardia |
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parasitology
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-the study of all parasites
ex's) -protozoans -helminthes -certain insects involved in transmitting diseases i.e.mosquitoes |
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immunology
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-the study of defense against diseases, antibodies, antigens, allergy/hypersensitivity
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antigens
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-anything your body recognizes as foreign
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antibodies
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-fight antigens
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molecular biology
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-study of DNA, RNA, and the SEQUENCING of them
-study of RECOMBINANT DNA>>moving genes from one organism to another |
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microbial ecology
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-the study of microbes in ecology and how they break down substances and release them into the ecosystem
-study of how microbes act in soil and water -ex) carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle |
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microbial physiology
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-the study of the metabolism (enzymes) of microbes, fermentations (ex-production of antibiotics), & biosynthetic pathways
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4 Beneficial Aspects of Microorganisms
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-Other chemicals and drugs
-Decomposers -Antibiotics -Research |
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medical microbiology
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-study of microorganisms and their relationships to diseases
-deals with all kingdoms except plants and animals because they don't affect us |
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decomposers
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-are absorptive heterotrophs
-are saprobes or saprophytes, meaning they feed off of dead material >break them down for nutrients >important ecologically |
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parasites
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-are absorptive heterotrophs
- live off of living organisms -are HARMFUL -are important medically |
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antibiotics
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-a chemical produced by a microbe that, in small amounts, will inhibit the growth of another microbe
ex) Pennicillium- attacks murein in bacterial cell wall, which means it won't hurt human cells |
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Penicillium
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-a mold that produces penicillin
- can be used to fight Streptococci (bacteria) and Gram + Infectrions - can also be used to fight Streptococci Pneumonia |
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other chemicals and drugs from microorganisms
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-alcohol (may be used for fuel)
-ethanol -acetic acid -insulin -cheeses -bread, beer, wine->all from yeasts |
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research tools
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-bacteria have only 1 CHROMOSOME, whereas humans have 46; thus they are easier to study
>biochemical studies >DNA/RNA studies |
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detrimental effects of microorganisms
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-spoilage- molds
-plant diseases >blueberries -animal diseases >tetanus >tb >AIDS >malaria |
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light microscopes
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-used to see eukaryotes
-uses visible light |
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radiation
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-defined by its wavelength, which is the distance between the tops of two curves of a wave
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visible light
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- ranges from 400 nm-800 nm
- VIGBYOR |
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UV light
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-ranges from 100 nm-400 nm
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x-ray, gamma ray
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-below 100 nm
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above visible light
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-infrared, microwaves
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resolving power of the human eye
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- 0.2 mm
- 200 micrometers |
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amount of energy
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- is inversely proportional to wavelength
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bright-field microscopes
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- either 1 or 2 oculars, each withe magnification of 5x, 10x, 15x, or 20x
-objectives are located below oculars (which makes it compound b/c 2 mag. lenses are used) -range from.... 4x (scanning) 10x (low power) 40x (high power) 100x (oil immersion) - below the objectives lies the specimen, then the condense, then the light source -magnification range of light microscopes is 20x-2000x -slide must be stained |
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resolution
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-is resolving power.
-smallest size you can see either with your eyes or with the microscope -resolution of eyes is 0.2mm RP= Wavelength/2A (NA is numerical aperture) - the smaller the wavelength, the smaller the resolving power, the better the resolution |
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dark field microscope
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-similar to field microscope, except it has a dark-field stop
-if no specimen is present, the field of view is black -ADVANTAGES >good for looking at living organisms that are unstained >good for looking at motility and artifacts (which are things that should not be present) >good for looking at mycoplasma b/c they lack cell walls but they move by gliding; the increased contrast helps display bacterium |
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dark-field stop
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- a piece of material with a circular center and an outer ring that is placed b/w the condenser and the light source so that the light must bend at angles around the stop; light will only bend to the objectives if a specimen is present
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Phase-Contrast Microscope
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-similar to bright-field, except it has an annular diaphragm and a PHASE SHIFTING ELEMENT (ring)
-annular setup is placed below the condenser; produces a ring of light to be passed up; initiates the effect (bending of light) - phase plate can advance light (make it go faster) or retard light (make it slower); this is due to refractive index -phase shifting element in the oculars forces the direct rays and NOT the incident rays --direct rays: light rays that shine head-on with the target --incident rays: light rays that shine at some angle away from the target -increases contrast due to focusing of direct rays -contrast is increased/decreased based on the density of the bacteria -USE >good for looking at living organisms and their motility >good for looking inside the cells >morphology >mycoplasma >inclusions |
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Fluorescence Microscope
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-easy, rapid diagnosis
-has....... >intense light source: mercury vapor lamp >an exiter filter: filters out everything greater than 400 nm, so it blocks out visible light and only lets light in that is close to UV light >a barrier filter: blocks out anything less than 500 nm, so humans can observe without eyes burning; lets things through that are >500nm -dye absorbs energy from UV lights, then emits light at a longer wavelength, makes it shine a yellow color -USES >mycobacterium- has high amounts of wax, which absorbs fluorescent dyes>>diagnosis of tb ex) auramine O (a fluorescent dye) emits yellow light on high power >fluorescent dye |
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refractive index
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-the difference between the speed of light in vacuum and speed of light in the medium
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immunofluorescence (fluorescent antibody technique)
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-used to view organisms without the waxy lipids
-antibodies (y-shaped) are grown when an organism is infected with a microorganism, then some of the antibodies are removed and a dye is attached to the antibodies -ex's of antigens that produce antibodies: >Syphilis (Treponema palladium) >Streptococcus pyogenes - a swab is smeared on slide, then dye complex is smeared also: antibody will stick to organism, if the human has disease, then it will shine if there is no infection, the dye complex will wash off |
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Differential Interference Contrast Microscope (DIC)
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-very expensive $$$$
-has a prism, which splits the light up and then recombines it -similar to phase contrast b/c you get high contrast with very sharp detail. Also b/c prism splits light into individual colors so you get false color and a 3D image USE -LIVE specimens -morphology -inside microorganisms -3D image |
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Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
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-base shoots our a stream of electrons, then has a vacuum, which pass through the condenser magnet, then pass through the specimen, then reach the objective magnet (lens), where they display an image on the fluorescent screen
-if no specimen, appears white -if specimen is present, it will scatter the electrons -the denser the object, the darker the image!! -Resolving power = 0.0005 micrometers = 0.5 nm = 5 Angstroms = 500 pm -USE: >look at dead organisms >to see inside bacteria >to see viruses |
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electron
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- 0.1-0.2 nm
-increase resolution |
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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
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- basic setup is similar to TEM
- has a 3D effect, so there is SURFACE DETAIL -USE >RP =0.1 micrometers = 10 nm >surface details of bacteria |
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classification
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-giving things names
-describing them -putting them in groups based on similarities and differences Used to..... 1- identify 2- see relationships to increase understanding, solve problems, and control them |
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artificial classification
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- based on 1 or very few EASILY RECOGNIZABLE CHARACTERISTICS
- does NOT show relationships ex's) birds have feathers mammals have hair WHITTAKER SCHEME: all prokaryotes were placed in monera, and they were all bacteria |
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natural classification
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-shows relationships with sexual reproduction, common ancestry, DNA, phylogenic
-Used to help control diseases and prevent other ailments -EX) CARL WOESE'S DOMAINS |
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Woese's 3 Domains
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- showed relationships
- examination of DNA and RNA shows relationships between organisms |
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Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology- 1st Edition
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-artificial, not based on DNA
- separated bacteria based on the chemistry of their cell wall by GRAM STAINING -4 phylums/divisions >Gracilicutes >Firmicutes >Tenericutes >Mendosicutes |
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Gracilicutes
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- gracili = thin
- cute = skin - Gram (-) negative ex's) > E.coli >Klebsiella (causes nosocomial pneumonia, from being in the hospital) >Neisseria >Spirochetes >Rickettsiae (bacteria, rocky mountain spotted fever, from ticks) >chlamydia >treponema (syphilis) >borrelia (lime disease) |
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Firmicutes
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-thick skin
- Gram (+) positive - have LOW G-C Ratio ex's) >Clostridium (tetanus) >Staphylococcus >Streptococcus (sore throat, pneumonia) >Bacillus (anthrax) > Mycobacterium (TB, leprosy)-->does not stain well! >Corynebacterium (diptheria) |
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Tenericutes
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-soft skin
- NO CELL WALL, so it's GRAM (-) NEGATIVE ex) Mycoplasma!!! |
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Mendosicutes
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- faulty skin
- NO MUREIN in cell walls, so it's GRAM VARIABLE~~ ex) Archaeabacteria |
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Bergey's 2nd Edition
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- recognized 2 domains of prokaryotes (Archaea and Bacteria)
- Archaea were NO LONGER CONSIDERED BACTERIA -based this analysis on DNA (natural classification) -did NOT recognize any kingdoms, but recognized about 40 different phyla! ex's) >Cyanobacteria >Actinobacteria >Firmicutes >Proteobacteria >Chlamydia >Spirochetes |
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Cyanobacteria
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- blue-green bacteria
- used to be considered algae - photosynthetic - gram (-) negative |
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Actinobacteria
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- gram (+) positive
- have high G+C ratio ex's) >Mycobacterium (does not stain well; use acid-fast stain) >Cornyebacterium (causes diptheria) -stains purple |
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Proteobacteria
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- all are Gram (-) Negative
ex's) >E.coli >Klebsiella >Neisseria (meningitis and gonorrhea) >Rickettsiae >took out Treponema, Borrelia, Chlamydia b/c DNA differs |
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Chlamydia
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-has its own phylum
-Gram (-) - ex: Chlamydia trachomatis (STD) |
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Spirochetes
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-has its own phylum
-Gram (-) |
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Cocci
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-sphere shaped
-avg size: 1 micrometer -ex) >Staphylococcus: causes boils, carbuncles, food poisoning >streptococcus: causes strep throat, pneumonia >Neisseria: causes gonorrhea, meningitis |
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Bacillus
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-rod shaped
-avg. size: 0.5micrometers x 2 micrometers -ex's) >Clostridium: causes tetanus, botulism >E.coli: causes diarrhea >Klebsiella: causes pneumonia (nosocomial) >Corynebacteria: causes diphtheria >Bacillus: causes anthrax |
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Spirilli
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-spiral shaped (curved)
-ex's) >Treponema: causes syphilis >Borrelia: causes lyme disease -avg. size: 0.5micrometers x 1-14 micrometers |
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glycocalyx
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- outermost layer of the bacterium
- the nonliving, extracellular, nonessential part of the cell - not all bacteria have the glycocalyx |
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slime layer
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-a think layer of slime
ex)Staphylococcus aureus-MRSA - slime layers look shiny and small |
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capsule
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- thick layer; big
ex's) >Klebsiella pneumoniae (nosocomial pneumonia) >Streptococcus pneumoniae (typical pneumonia) >Streptococcus pyogenes (strep-sore throat) >Bacillus anthrasis (anthrax) >Haemophilus influenzae (secondary infection after you get the flu; causes meningitis) -capsules are MUCOID |
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chemistry of glycocalyx
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- some are proteins
-some are polysaccharides -used to be thought it has was because it was thick and gooey |
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Regulation
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-primarily regulated by genes
-GENETICS (DNA) & ENVIRONMENT (based on nutrition) determine whether bacteria will develop glycocalyx |
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Colonial appearance
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-visible to the eyes so you can see on agar plate
-capsules have a mucoid appearance; difficult to see -slime layers look shiny and wet |
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negative staining technique
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-stain everything EXCEPT for what you're looking for and capsule
- India ink is placed on glycocalyx, then crystal violet is placed on the slide. When it's rinsed, the inside of the bacterium will be violet, the outside of the cell will be black (b/c of the India ink) -the glycocalyx will be clear, shine like a HAAAAAAAALO -capsule does not get stained (it's clear) because of the proteins and polysaccharides that repel the dye ex) Klebsiella pnumonia background=stained black capsule=clear bacteria=purple |
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Importance in Identification
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-Go through 3 levels to identify genes and species
1: shape/morphology 2: gram staining 3: enzymes (physiology) at biochemical level |
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Serology-SEROVARS
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-serological varieties
=races =strains -serology is the classification by serotypes based on GLYCOCALX -affects antibiotic sensitivity -important in development in vaccines (23 most common varieties)>>ex there are more than 92 varieties of streptococcus pneumoniae that can affect humans -antibodies and vaccines only affect a few certain varieties |
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Functions of Capsules
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- allow organisms to stick together, forming a MICROCOLONY
BENEFITS: -provides protection -inner bacterium are protected against dryness and chemicals -white blood cells have difficulty engulfing the larger microcolonies -however the outside bacteria may die -protection against phagocytosis, which works well against 1 organism but NOT against a colony -allow bacteria to adhere to contaminate, inanimate objects (like anything inserted into the body, like a catheter) and adhere to the animate hosts |
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virulent/pathogenic; pathogenicity
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-able to adhere/cause disease
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avirulent/non-pathogenic
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-no capsule/no sticking
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General Properties of the Cell Wall
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-nonliving
-NOT extracellular - 20%-40% of dry weight of microbe (weight when water is removed) |
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Functions of the Cell Wall
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-prevents plasmoptysis: lysis, or bursting of the cell
-prevents plasmolysis: shrinking of cell, and flaccid osmotic pressure: water flows from high concentration to low concentration >environment = low osmotic pressure >inside of cell= hypotonic/hypoosmotic, which means it has a high concentration of solutes, low water >outside of the cell= hypotonic/hypoosmotic, meaning it has a low concentration of solutes and low osmotic pressure, high water |