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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How does the mode of nutrition differ in the eukaryotes? |
Fungi - Chemoheterotrophs, absorptive Algae - Phototrophs, (absorptive) Protozoa - ingestive heterotrophs |
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How do fungi reproduce asexually? What is the most common? |
Budding, fission, spores (most common) |
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How does fungi's sexual reproduction differ from other eukaryotes? |
Spends almost it's entire life as haploid. When ready to divide, cytoplasms join and become dikaryotic ("plasmogamy") The two nuclei join and become diploid ("karyogamy") Diploid cells divide and produce sporangia. |
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What are main kinds of fungi? |
Chytridiomycetes, zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes |
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What are chytridiomycetes? What is unique about them? How do they reproduce? What diseases does it cause? What are some specific examples? |
Fungi flagellated gametes, aquatic, chitin cell walls Zoospores Cause skin infections in amphibians Allomyces, B. dendrobatidis |
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What are zygomycetes? What is unique about them? How do they reproduce? How does it affect humans? What are some specific examples? |
Conjugating fungi Molds Asexual (sporangia) and sexual (zygospore) reproduction. Black Bread mold Rhizopus |
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What are ascomycetes? How do they reproduce? What are some specific examples? |
Sac fungi Asexually (conidia) and sexually (ascus) Yeasts, morels, truffles |
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What is a conidia? An ascus? Where are they found? |
Conidia - Spores are exposed to the external environment Ascus - spores develop in a sac Ascomycetes |
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What are basidiomycetes? How do they reproduce? What are some specific examples? |
Club fungi Sexual - fruiting body Mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs |
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What are some impacts of fungi? |
Food - beer, wine, bread, mushrooms Pathogens - yeasts, ringworm, histoplasma |
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What are some examples of parasitic fungi? |
Rusts, smuts, rots |
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Describe the structure of fungi? |
Hyphae - fuzzy filaments, coenocytic (no dividing walls) or septate (dividing walls) Mycelium - Fruiting body Cell wall - chitin/cellulose Spores - sexual or asexual |
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What are lichen, cellulose, chloroplasts, oogonia, and antheridia? |
Lichen - Arises from algae and/or cyanobacteria living among filaments of a fungus in a symbiotic relationship. Cellulose - Comprise cell walls of fungi and algae Chloroplasts - photosynthetic organells Oogonia - the female sex organ of fungi and algae antheridia - the male sex organ of fungi and algae |
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What are the cell walls of algae composed of? |
Cellulose and silica |
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How do algae reproduce asexually? Sexually? |
Asexual - fission, spores, fragmentation Sexually - conjugation (oogonia and antheridia) |
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What are the main algae? |
Charophyta chrysophyta phaeophyta rhodophyta chlorophyta Euglenophyta Pyrrhophyta |
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What are charophyta? What are some unique traits? |
Stonewort Closest relative of plants Flagellated sperm |
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Which algae is the closest relative to plants? |
Charophyta |
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What are chrysophyta? What are some specific examples? What type of chlorophyll? |
Golden-yellow algae Diatoms, Vaucheria Chlorophyll a + c |
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What are diatoms? Vaucheria? Where are they found? |
Diatoms - unicellular phytoplankton Vaucheria - Large central vacuole in growth from tips of filaments Chrysophyta |
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What is diatomaceous earth? What is it used for? |
Fossilized remains of diatoms Abrasives and filters |
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What are Phaeophyta? What are some unique traits? What type of chlorophyll/pigments? |
Brown Algae, Kelps Multicellular Holdfast (roots) stipe (stalk) blades (leaves) bladders (gas filled sacs for buoyancy) Edible Chlorophyll a + c, fucoxanthin |
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What are Rhodophyta? What are some unique traits? What type of chlorophyll/pigments? What is it used for? |
Red algae Mostly multicellular, edible Chlorophyll a, Phycobilin Source of agar |
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Which of the algae are entirely multicellular? Unicellular? Non-motile? |
Multicellular, non-motile - Phaeophyta Unicellular - Euglenophyta |
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Which algae are like protozoa? |
Euglenophyta, Pyrrhophyta |
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Which algae are the most diverse? |
Chlorophyta |
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What are chlorophyta? What are some unique traits? What type of chlorophyll? |
Green algae Most diverse - unicellular, multicellular, colonial Most plant like Chlorophyll a + b |
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Which algae are the most plant like? |
Chlorophyta |
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What are euglenophyta? |
Flagellated unicellular protists Chloroplasts have 4 membranes |
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What are Pyrrhophyta? |
Dinoflagellates Flagellated unicellular protists Cause of Red Tide Releases neurotoxins |
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What causes Red Tide? |
Pyrrhophyta |
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What can algae be used for? |
Toothpaste, filters, agar, food |
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What is the general structure for protozoa? |
Unicellular Usually motile No cell wall May form cysts |
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How do protozoa feed? |
Ingestive heterotrophs Food vacuales Oral groove Cilia aid in feeding |
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How do protozoa reproduce? |
Asexual - fission Sexual - conjugation |
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How do protozoa move? |
Cilia Flagella Pseudopodia |
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What are the main protozoa? |
Ciliophora Apicomplexa Rhizopoda Mastigophora |
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What are Mastigophora? What are some specific examples? What diseases do they cause? |
Flagellates Trypanosoma - Chagas, sleeping sickenss Giardia - Beaver fever Trichomonas - STD |
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What are Rhizopodia? What are some examples? |
Sarcodina (pseudopods) Amoeba Foraminiferans - White Cliffs of Dover Heliozoa Radiolara - zooplankton |
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What are Ciliophora? What are some examples? |
Ciliates Paramecium Stentor (biggest unicellular, horn shaped) Vorticella (inverted bell) Euplotes |
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What are Apicomplexa? What are some examples and what diseases do they cause? |
Sporozoa Plasmodium - malaria Toxoplasma - toxoplasmosis Cryptosporidium |
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What are oomycota? |
Water molds Cellulose cell wall Phtophthora - irish potato famine |
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What are the two types of slime molds? |
Cellular - dictyostelium acellular - plasmodium |
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What are some characteristics of viruses? |
Extremely small Can cause diseases or cancer can go underground Can infect almost any life form |
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What are the size ranges of viruses? |
0.02 - 0.4 um |
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What is the general structure of viruses? |
Nucleic acid (DNA RNA) Protein coat Envelope |
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What are the different kinds of genetic material that can be found in viruses? |
ssRNA - HIV, influenza dsRNA - Orbivirus ssDNA - Parvovirus dsDNA - T4 bacteriophage |
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Why are chromosomes in viruses so diverse? |
Can be: haploid/diploid single/segmented linear/circular few genes/many genes few bp/many bp |
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What is the viral capsid? What does it do? |
Protein coat (capsomeres, protomers) Gives virus shape, protects nucleic acids, host recognition, entry |
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What are the 3 basic virus shapes? |
Icosahedral - 20 sided, equialteral triangles, most common ex - adenovirus Helical - Influenza virus Complex - T4 bacteriophage |
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What are some other virus shapes? |
Filamentous - filovirus Bullet shaped - rhabdovirus cone shaped - HIV |
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What is the viral envelope? |
Phospholipid membrane Contains protein spikes Host derived, ether inactivation |
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What are the functions of protein spikes? |
Enzyme function and attachment |
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What are some other important proteins in viruses? |
Reverse transcriptase RNA polymerase |
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What is the "life" cycle of a virus? |
1. Adsorption 2.Penetration and entry 3. NA replication 4. Viral protein synthesis 5. Virion release |
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What occurs in the adsorption step? |
Virus binds to receptors (depends on host organism and cell type) |
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What occurs in the penetration and entry step? How is it different in enveloped and naked viruses? |
Capsid rearrangement and nucleic acid injection. (penetration) Enveloped - envelope and membrane fuse (entry) naked - receptor mediated endocytosis (entry) |
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What occurs in the NA replication step? |
Viruses with DNA - are able to use host enzymes to replicate in the nucleus Viruses with RNA - have to copy their RNA to form new RNA strand. DNA is synthesized using host machinery. |
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Why are retroviruses special? |
They have RNA genome but don't need to synthesize new RNA. Can synthesize DNA from their own RNA using reverse transcriptase. |
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What happens in the viral protein synthesis step? |
mRNA is translated and self-assembly occurs |
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What occurs in the virion release step? How is this different in naked and enveloped viruses? |
Cell death often occurs Enveloped - host cell lysis or budding Naked - host cell lysis |
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Lytic v lysogenic cycle? Which viruses use them? |
Lytic - Cell eventually fills with so many viruses that it bursts. Naked and enveloped. Lysogenic - Virus DNA integrated into host DNA. When cell divides, Virus DNA divides too. Enveloped (HIV, herpes) |
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How are viruses classified? |
Host range and structure |
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List some viruses that infect animals, bacteria/archaea, fungi, protozoa/algae, and plants. |
Animals - ebola, herpes, HIV, Hepatitis B Bacteria/Archaea - Bacteriopahges (T4, T2) Fungi - Mycoviruses Protozoa - Pithivirus Algae - Chlorella virus Plants - Tobacco Mosaic Virus |
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List some viruses that affect different body systems? |
Blood - Leukemia, AIDS Respiratory - Influenza Nervous - Polio, Meningitis, Rabies Cancer - Cervical cancer Skin - Measels, Rubella, Chickenpox, Shingles GI System - Hepatitis, Mumps |
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What are Viroids? Prions? |
Viroids - Circular ssRNA, cause plant diseases Prions - misfolded proteins |
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What are the 3 types of symbiosis? |
Commensalism - "Along for the ride" Mutualism - Both benefit ex- lichens, tube worms, ruminant microbes Parasitism - One benefits, one harmed |
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What are some defenses humans have against microbes? |
Physical - Barriers (skin, mucus membranes) Mechanical - Movements (mouth, GI tract, Resp, Urinary) Biochemical - Secretions (skin, mucus membranes, eyes, stomach, intestines, urinary) |
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How do changes in host environment effect the microbes in our bodies? |
Immune system - alcoholism, infection, poor nutrition can lower immune function. Opportunistic pathogens can flourish. Puberty+menopause - estrogen increase causes lactobacillus to flourish and vice versa. Teething - anaerobic habitats created, plaque and halitosis Breast feeding - bifidobacterium. Formula and solid food cause an increase in bacteroides, clostridium, and enterobacteria |
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What are some adaptations microbes have to survive? |
Tolerance - salts, acids, secretions Competition - nutrients, iron Attachment - pili, capsules |
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What is the etiology of disease? (7 steps) |
Maintain a reservoir Transmission to host Colonize host Invade host Evade host defenses Host damage Leave host |
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What are the different types of reservoirs? |
Carriers - disease whose reservoir is humans ex - s. pyogenes Zoonosis - disease whose reservoir is animals ex - lyme disease, ebola Environmental - soil, water |
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How can disease be transmitted? |
Air - moisture droplets (sneezing) Direct contact - STDs Ingestion - fecal oral route Parenteral - injections Vectors and Fomites - fomites are needles, tissues Portal entry - resp, gi tract, skin, urogenital |
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What is a vector? |
An animal that carries the disease and infects the host. ex - mosquitos/malaria, ticks/lymes |
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What are some ways diseases colonize or adhere to a host? |
Adhesins - hemagglutinin Pili - Neisseria Capsules - streptococcus |
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What are some ways diseases invade a host? |
Collagenase, Hyaluronidase, gelatinase - breaks down CT Coagulase, streptokinase - form and break down clots Invasins - invade and penetrate cell |
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What is host damage the result of? |
Pathogen growth, invasiveness, immune system reaction, pathogen toxins, cellular damage |
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What are some pathogenic toxins? |
Exotoxins - pertussis, cholera, tetanus, anthrax Endotoxins - gram - bacteria, fever, shock Cytolysins - Hemolysis, Lecithinase |
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What are some ways diseases elude host defenses? |
Capsules and surface proteins Antigenic variations IgA protease Coagulase |
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What are some ways diseases exit the host? |
Fecal route oral route blood-borne vector |
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How would you isolate and identify a pathogen? |
1. Specimen collection - specialized containers to maintain pathogen 2. Culture 3. Microscopic examination 4. Growth and biological characteristics 5. Immunological tests |
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What are almost exclusively diagnoses through microscopy? |
Protozoa, fungi, parasites |
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What are some immunological tests? |
Direct fluorescence antigen test Rapid antibody test (liposomes) ELISA |
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What are some molecular methods for diagnosing pathogens? |
PCR, DNA hybridization |
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What test is used mainly by reference labs? |
Bacteriophage typing |
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Define: antibiotics antimicrobial agents chemotherapeutic agents |
antibiotics - naturally produced compounds or their semi synthetic derivatives Antimicrobial agents - any compound designed for the treatment of infections Chemotherapeutic agents - any compound designed for the treatment of disease |
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What are some sources of antibiotics? |
Bacteria - bacillus, streptomyces Fungi - penicillium |
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List the properties of antibiotics |
selective toxicity side effects antimicrobial spectrum activity specificity and susceptibilty |
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What is selective toxicity? |
The extent to which a drug kills or harms pathogens without harming the host. |
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What drug has a side effect of damaged hearing? |
Gentamicin |
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Broad v Narrow spectrum antibiotics? |
Narrow - Effective against one microbial group Broad - effective against more than one microbial |
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List some examples of narrow and broad spectrum antibiotics |
Narrow - pennicilin (gram +) Broad - tetracycline |
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What is specificity? Susceptibility? |
Specificity - What the antibiotic targets Susceptibility - a property of microbes ex - penicillin doesnt work on mycoplasma because it doesn't have a cell wall |
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What is the Kirby-Bauer method for? How is it done? |
Used to determine the effectivness of antibiotics. Paper disks impregnated with antibiotics placed on Mueller Hinton agar. If a clearing forms around the disk, the size of it helps determine how well an antibiotic will work. |
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What is MLC and MIC? |
MIC - minimal inhibitory concentration. Lowest concentration of antibiotic that still inhibits growth MLC - minimal cidal concentration. Lowest concentration of antibiotic to kill bacteria |
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What are the different modes of action for antibiotics? |
Attack: Cell wall synthesis Plasma membrane 70S ribsomes Bacterial DNA/RNA Metabolism |
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How do antibiotics that attack cell wall synthesis work? What are some examples? |
Attack peptidoglycan Penicillins - Penicillin G, Ampicillin, Methicillin, etc. Cephalosporins - Used when penicillin resistant. Broad Spectrum. Vancomycin - Narrow spectrum, made by streptomyces, "last resort" |
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How do antibiotics that attack 70S ribosomes work? What are some specific examples? |
70S ribosome only found in bacteria, blocks protein synthesis when attacked. Aminoglycosides - Streptomycin, Broad Macrolides - Erythromycin, Narrow, Mild SEs Tertacyclines - Broad, stains teeth, static |
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How do antibiotics that attack cell membrane work? What are some specific examples? |
Disrupt the PM of gram - bacteria. Harmful to humans, can cause kidney damage Polymyxins - Polymyxin B (Neosporin) Gramcidin (toxic to humans) Colistin |
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How do antibiotics that attack DNA/RNA synthesis work? What are some examples? |
Interfere with bacterial enzymes (DNA gyrase, RNA polymerase) Quinolones - Ciproflaxin, broad, DNA gyrase, blocks DNA replication Rifampin - Inhibits RNA polymerase, stops mRNA production. Effective anti TB drug. |
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How do antibiotics that attack metabolism work? What are some examples? |
Inhibit folic acid synthesis. Sulfa drugs - Imitate folic acid precursor, resistance arises easily. |
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What are some antifungal drugs and how do they work? |
Polyenes - amphotericin B, Nystatin Azoles - Imidazole Interfere with sterol synthesis in fungal membranes or cell wall. High level of toxicity |
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What are some antiviral drugs and how do they work? |
Amantadine - inhibits virus uncoating, Influenza A virus Acyclovir - inhibits viral DNA synth. Herpes family. AZT - inhibits reverse transcriptase. HIV/AIDS Ritonavir - Inhibits protease, HIV/AIDS |
