Memory

Front 1

Memory

Back 1

ability to retain information over timethrough three processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving

▪not copies but representations ofthe world that vary in accuracy and are subject to error and bias

Learning that haspersisted over time

Information that hasbeen stored over time

Information that canbe retrieved over time

Front 2

Encoding

Back 2

refers to making mental representationsof information so that it can be placed into memory

transferring information from short- tolong-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating it, or forming newassociations

Front 3

Storing

Back 3

process of placing encoded informationinto relatively permanent mental storage for later recall

Front 4

Retrieving

Back 4

process of getting or recallinginformation that has been placed into short- or long-term storage

process of selecting information fromlong-term memory and transferring it to short-term memory

Front 5

TheThree-Stage Model of Memory

Back 5

Sensoryinput from the environment is recorded as fleeting sensory memory.

Informationis processed in short-term memory.

Informationis encoded into long-term memory for later retrieval

Front 6

Processing

Back 6

Howinformation gets encoded into memory

Front 7

Automatic processing

Back 7

isthe unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, andwell-learned information.

Front 8

Effortful processing

Back 8

isencoding that requires attention and conscious effort (i.e., rehearsal)

Front 9

Ifwe are going to do effortful processing to encode information, what strategieswork best?

Back 9

Hermann Ebbinghaus: Tryrepetition

Front 10

Spacing Effect

Back 10

Informationis retained better when rehearsal is distributed over time.

Distributedstudy produces better long term recall.

Massedpractice (doing your studying on one day) produces speedy short term-learningbut poorer long-term recall.

Front 11

The Serial Position Effect

Back 11

Thetendency to remember the first and the last items in a list

Front 12

Recency Effect

Back 12

Immediately after a list of words is reador seen, people recall the last items in a list better.

Possible explanation: The last items may be held in short-termmemory.

Front 13

Primacy Effect

Back 13

When exposure to a list is followed by along delay, people recall the first items on a list better.

Possibleexplanation: The attention is on the first items, and short-term memory is nothelping

Front 14

Semanticjudgment

Back 14

thinkingabout a word’s meaning, allows for deeper processing and best memory.

Front 15

Rhyme judgment

Back 15

attending to the word’ssound, results in shallow processing

Front 16

Visual judgment

Back 16

attending to how the word looks (shallow processing), yields thelowest remembering.

Front 17

Organizational Encoding

Back 17

A fewbroad concepts divided into smaller concepts and facts subdividedinto even narrower concepts and facts

Front 18

Sensory memory

Back 18

don’tpay attention, information is forgotten

payattention, information is automatically transferred into short-term memory

Front 19

Short-term memory

Back 19

don’tpay attention, information isn’t encoded and is forgotten

Front 20

Long-term memory

Back 20

encodedinformation will remain on a relatively permanent basis

process of storing almost unlimitedamounts of information over long periods of time

Front 21

Sensory Memory

Back 21

Theimmediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

Visual: Iconic Memory (< 1 second)

Auditory:Echoic Memory (a few seconds)

Front 22

Iconic memory

Back 22

Formof sensory memory that automatically holds visual information for about aquarter of a second or more; as soon as you shift your attention, theinformation disappears

Iconmeans image

Front 23

Echoicmemory

Back 23

Formof sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1 to 2 seconds

Holdsspeech sounds long enough to know that sequences of certain sounds form words

Front 24

Functionsof sensory memory

Back 24

Preventsbeing overwhelmed (lasts only a few seconds)

Givesdecision time (gives you time to figure out if information is important orinteresting)

Providesstability, playback, and recognition (allows us to see/hear things smoothly)

Front 25

Short-term memory

Back 25

Processof holding a limited amount of information (an average of seven items) for alimited period of time (2 to 30 seconds)

After3 seconds, only 50% is recalled, and after 12 seconds, nothing is remembered

Shortduration can be lengthened by repeating or rehearsing the information

Front 26

Working Memory

Back 26

(short-term memory)

has alimited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds)

Front 27

(Functionsof short-term memory)

Attending

Back 27

selectively attend to relevantinformation and disregard everything else

Front 28

(Functions of short-term memory)

Rehearsing

Back 28

allows you to hold information for ashort period of time until you decide what to do with it

Front 29

(Functions of short-term memory)

Storing

Back 29

helps store or encode information inlong-term memory

Front 30

Interference

Back 30

Resultswhen new information enters short-term memory and overwrites or pushes outinformation that’s already there

Front 31

Chunking

Back 31

Combiningseparate items of information into a larger unit, or chunk, and thenremembering these chunks rather than individual items

Thecapacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.”

EX. F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

FBI TWA CIA IBM (4 chunks)

Front 32

Short-termmemory +

Back 32

Limited in capacity – Seven bits ofinformation can be stored +/- 2 (Miller, 1956). Recall is better for randomdigits (phone numbers) than for random letters

Recall is better for random digits (phone numbers) than forrandom letters

Recall is slightly better for whatwe hear than for what we see

Without rehearsal, most people canretain about 4 information chunks in their short term memory

Front 33

Long-termmemory +

Back 33

Unlimited capacity, but not asaccurate as sensory memory or short-term memory

Organizes and stores information

Information not stored in preciselocations

Duration of memory storage thoughtby some to be permanent

Front 34

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

Back 34

Aneural basis for learning and remembering associations

Synapsesbecome more efficient at transmitting messages, and…

Increasedefficiency in the synapse leads to more efficient neural circuits.

Totest this, the aplysia (sea slug) was classically conditioned to withdraw itsgill, and the neural basis for this was studied.

Front 35

Emotionand Memory

Back 35

Excitement, stress, orstrong emotion can strengthen memories. Stronger memory in response toemotional situations is adaptive.

Emotion-triggered stress hormonesincrease glucose production, which signals to the brain that somethingimportant has happened. The amygdala boosts activity and proteins in thebrain’s memory areas.

Front 36

Flashbulb Memories

Back 36

Flashbulbmemories are clear, detailed memories of emotionally significant events

Front 37

Emotional Memory

Back 37

Canbe persistent

Heightensthe body’s stress response

Spursproduction of the stress hormones adrenaline and cortisol

Canbe a key symptom of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Experimentaltreatments include drugs to block memory

Front 38

damageto hippocampus causes...

Back 38

deficitsin forming new explicit memories

(does not affect implicit memory

EX. Patient H. M. had parts of temporal lobes removed

H.M.had explicit memories from before the surgery.

Hecould NOT remember what happened after the surgery.

Front 39

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Back 39

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Memory of personally experienced events

Memory that can be consciously recalled

Processedin hippocampus

Amnesiapatient H.M. was unable to form new explicit memories. He couldn’t recall newevents or facts in his life such as spending time on lessons with researchers.

Front 40

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Back 40

Retentionindependent of conscious recollection

Processedby cerebellum and other brain areas

Motorand cognitive skills

Amnesiapatient H.M. retained implicit memory. He could learn new skills such ascopying a picture using a mirror.

Front 41

HMis unable to make new memories that aredeclarative(explicit), but he can form newmemoriesthat are procedural (implicit).

HM learned the Tower of Hanoi(game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember thefact that he has already played the game.

Front 42

The Hippocampus

Back 42

Processesexplicit memories for facts and episodes

Feedsmemories to other brain areas for storage

Partof the limbic system

Activeduring slow-wave sleep

Hippocampusand cortex display simultaneous activity during sleep.

Front 43

The Cerebellum

Back 43

Crucialto the formation of implicit memories

Playskey role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning

Damageto cerebellum disrupts forming conditioned reflexes

Front 44

Retrograde (Amnesia)

Back 44

Inabilityto access memory before a certain date

Front 45

Anterograde (Amnesia)

Back 45

Inabilityto form or consolidate new memories after a certain date

Front 46

Retrieval

Back 46

Gettinginformation out of memory

Front 47

Recall

Back 47

bringingpreviously learned information into conscious awareness, as in afill-in-the-blank question on a test

the person must retrieveinformation using effort

Front 48

Recognition

Back 48

correctlyidentifying previously learned information when exposed to it again, as in amultiple-choice test

the person must identify an itemamongst other choices

Front 49

Context Effects

Back 49

Abilityto recall is improved when in the same context as the initial experience

Front 50

State-Dependent Memory

Back 50

Recallis improved when encoding and retrieval of a memory happen in the sameemotional or biological state.

It is difficult to remember happy timeswhen depressed.

This may explain why after a happyexperience, people view the world through rose-colored glasses.

Front 51

Priming

Back 51

Activationof an existing memory by a stimulus

Theactivation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Front 52

EncodingFailure

Back 52

Wecannot remember what we do not encode.

Front 53

Forgetting

Back 53

Encodingfailure

Storagedecay

Retrievalfailure

Front 54

Encoding Failure

Back 54

Informationis never encoded into long-term memory.

Whatletters accompany the number 5 on the telephone?

Whereis the number 0 on your calculator?

Somememories cannot be encoded without effort.

Front 55

Storage Decay

Back 55

Memories decay gradually if they are notused.

Information is at first rapidlyforgotten.

After a certain period of time, theforgetting levels off.

Front 56

Retrieval Failure

Back 56

Tip-of-the-tonguephenomenon

Interference

Motivatedforgetting

Front 57

Proactive Interference

Back 57

Forward acting

The disruptive effect of prior learningon the recall of new information

A friend’s email address that was learnedlong ago may interfere with learning the new email address.

Front 58

Retroactive Interference

Back 58

Backwardacting

Thedisruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Learninga password for a new bank card can disrupt recall of the password for yourexisting ATM card.

Front 59

Motivated Forgetting

Back 59

Repression - Freudian defense mechanismthat banishes an anxiety-producing memory from consciousness

Preserves self-concept

Memory may be retrieved through a cue ortherapy.

Increasing number of memory researchersthink repression rarely occurs.

Front 60

Misinformation Effect

Back 60

Incorporating misleading information intothe memory of an event

Elizabeth Loftus asked:

“Howfast were the cars going when they hit each other?”

“Howfast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”

The reported recall of the rate of speeddepended on how the question was asked.

(smashed into) lead to "worse accident"

(hit) lead to "lesser accident"

Front 61

False Memory

Back 61

False memories can be “planted.”

Imagining nonexistent events can create amemory.

Imagination inflation – Imaginingsomething and really perceiving it activate similar brain areas.

People with vivid imaginations are morelikely to have false memories.

Children are very susceptible to falsememory.

Front 62

Source Memory

Back 62

Knowingwhen, where and how information was acquired

Front 63

Source Misattribution

Back 63

Retainingthe memory of the event but not the context of the event

Front 64

Mnemonics

Back 64

Imagery is at the heart of manymemory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devicesin aiding memory.

Front 65

Mnemonic methods

Back 65

improveencoding and create better retrieval cues by forming vivid associations/imagesto improve recall

Front 66

Method of loci

Back 66

createvisual associations between already memorized places and new items to bememorized

Front 67

Improving Memory

Back 67

1.Study repeatedly to boost long-termrecall.2.Spend more time rehearsing oractively thinking about the material.

3.Make material personallymeaningful.

4.Use mnemonic devices:

associate with peg words —something already stored

make up a story

chunk — acronyms