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161 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
mechanistic organizations |
(bureaucratic) characterized by specialized jobs and responsibilities, precisely defined, unchanging roles, and rigid chain of command based on centralized authority and vertical communication--works best in stable, unchanging environments |
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organic organizations |
characterized by broadly defined jobs and responsibility, loosely defined, frequently changing roles, and decentralized authority and horizontal communication based on task knowledge--works best in dynamic, changing business environments |
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division of labor |
when the work of the organization is subdivided into smaller tasks to be performed by individuals |
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specialization |
different people or groups perform specific part of the larger task |
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3 dimensions of designing structure |
1. horizontal differentiation 2. vertical differentiation 3. integrating mechanisms |
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horizontal differentiation |
the formal division of the organization into subunits; deals with issues of departmentalization that create functional, divisional, and metrix organizations |
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vertical differentiation |
the location of decision making responsibilities within a structure including the authority within an organization, the board of directors, the CEO and hierarchical levels |
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integrating mechanisms |
processes for coordinating subunits |
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advantages of matrix structures |
-enhances organizational flexibility -foster high motivation and increased organizational commitment -provide opportunity for team members to learn new skills -makes efficient of human resources -allows team members to serve as bridges to their departments -is a useful vehicle for decentralization |
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disadvantages of matrix structures |
-employees are uncertain about reporting relationships
-managers may view design as an anarchy in which they have unlimited freedom -they dynamics of group behavior may lead to slower decision making, one person domination, compromise decisions, or a loss of focus -more time may be required for coordinating task-related activities |
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components of vertical differentiation |
1. authority 2. hierarchy |
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authority |
the right to give commands, take action, and make decisions to achieve organizational objectives -formal: based on a formal position; board of directors, CEO -informal: based on expertise, experience, or personal qualities; scientists, computer savvy people |
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hierarchy |
-the number of levels in an organization ~top management ~middle management ~operational management |
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4 dimensions of authority |
1. chain of command 2. line versus staff authority 3. delegation of authority 4. degree of centralization |
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Delegation |
assignment of direct authority and responsibility to a subordinate to complete tasks for which the manager is normally responsible |
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3 transfers involved with delegation |
1. manager transfers responsibility for the assignment to the subordinate 2. manager gives the subordinate full authority over budget, resources, and personnel needed to do the job 3. transfer of accountability, must get the job done |
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advantages of centralization |
-facilitates coordination -ensures decisions are consistent with organizations objectives -avoids duplication of activities by different subunits -by concentrating power and authority in one individual or a management team, centralization can give top level managers the means to bring about needed major organizational changes -temporary centralization of decision making power is often an important step in organizational change |
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tall hierarchies |
organizations with many layers of management and narrow spans of control |
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flat hierarchies
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organizations with few layers of management and wide spans of control |
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span of control |
-refer of the number of subordinates who report directly to an executive or supervisor -he number of direct reports a manager can handle depends on the nature of the work being supervised, how visible the performance of subordinate is, and the extent of decentralization within the organization |
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problems with tall hierarchies |
-there is a tendency for information to get accidentally distorted as it passes through layers in a hierarchy -problem of deliberate distortion by midlevel managers who are trying to curry favor with their superiors or pursue some agenda of their own (influence costs) -they are expensive and can cause a competitive disadvantage -inherent inertia (opposition to change) |
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standardization |
-establishing common routines and procedures that apply uniformly to everyone -managers may establish standards for which types of computer equipment that organization will use |
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formalization
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-the presence of rules and regulations governing how people in the organization interact -written policies regarding attendance, dress and decorum are examples |
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job rotation |
periodically moving working from one specialized job to another to give them more variety and the opportunity to use different skills |
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job enlargement |
increases the number of different tasks that a worker performs within one particular job |
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enrichment |
attempts to overcome the deficiencies in specialized work by increasing the number of tasks an by giving workers the authority and control to make meaningful decisions about their work |
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reengineering |
fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of performance such as cost, quality, service, and speed |
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3 types one interdependence |
1. pooled interdependence 2. sequential interdependence 3. reciprocal interdependence |
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poole interdependence |
each job or department independently contributes to the whole
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sequential interdependence |
work must be performed in succession, as on groups or jobs outputs become the inputs for the next |
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reciprocal interdependence |
different jobs or groups work together in a back-and-forth manner to complete the process |
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modular organizations |
outsource all remaining business activities to outside companies, suppliers, specialists, or consultants except for the core business activities they can perform better, faster, and cheaper than others |
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virtual organization |
part of a network in which many companies share skills, costs, capabilities, markets, and customers with each other |
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teams |
groups of people who interact and influence each other, are mutually accountable for achieving common goals associated with organizational objective, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization |
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social loafing |
-occurs when people exert less effort than when working in groups than when working alone likely to occur when: -large groups where individual output is hard to identify -people believe their contributions are not important -believe others will do the work for them -lack of effort will go undetected -will be the lone sucker if they work hard by others don't |
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use teams when... |
-there is a clear, engaging reason or purpose -the job can't be done unless people work together -rewards can be provided for teamwork and team performance -ample resources are available |
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don't use teams when... |
-there isn't a clear, engaging reason or purpose -the job can be done by people working independently -rewards are provided for individual effort and performance -the necessary resources are not available |
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team effectiveness |
the productive output of the team meets or exceeds the standards or quantity and quality that an individual could produce |
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5 ways to improve team effectiveness |
-customer satisfaction -product and service quality -product development speed and efficiency -employee job satisfaction -decision making |
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job analysis |
systematic analysis of jobs within an organization |
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job description
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a listing of the jobs duties; its working conditions; and the tools, materials, and equipment use to perform the job |
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job specification |
a listing of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other credentials the incumbent jobholder will need to do a job |
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selection |
-the process of gathering information about job applicants to decide who should be offered a job -it is a set of methods used to make decisions about whom to hire |
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types of selection tests |
-ability, skill, aptitude or knowledge test are usually the best predictors of job success, but cognitive ability is the best -personality tests, work sample tests and others are also used -must be validated, administered, and scored consistently -the testing process must be the same for all candidates |
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Structured Interviews
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selection technique that involved asking all applicants the same questions and comparing their responses to a standardized set of answers |
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unstructured interviews |
non directive selection technique where the interview ask different interviewees different quesitons |
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semi-structured interviews
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hybrid of the first two |
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reliability |
consistency of test scores over item and across alternative measurements |
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validity |
asses the accuracy of the selection test |
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4 phases of a training program |
1. needs assessment--the process of identifying and prioritizing the learning needs employees (ie. jobs, people and departments) 2. training program design--training objectives and content are established from the needs assessment 3. decisions about training methods and location-can be on of off site 4. evaluate the training program's effectiveness surveys, tests, improved behavior etc. |
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4 ways to evaluate a training program |
-Reactions--how satisfied trainees were with the program -Learning--how much employees improved their knowledge or skills -Behavior--how much employees actually changed their on-the-job behavior because of training -Results--how much training improved job performance, such as increased sales or quality, or decreased cost |
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purposes of performance appraisal |
-appraisal validates the selection process and the effect of training -can serve 2 main purposes: 1. administrative appraisals aid in making decisions about pay raises, promotions, and training, and terminations; helps employees understand and accept decisions 2. developmental appraisal provides feedback to employees to improve their performance, identify needed training and plan future careers |
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360-degree feedback |
feedback comes from four sources: the boss, subordinates, peers and coworkers, and the employees themselves |
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compensation |
the financial and non-financial rewards that organizations give employees in exchange for their work |
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employment separation |
a broad term covering the loss of an employee for any reason |
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involuntary separation |
occurs when employers decide to terminate or lay off employees
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voluntary separation |
occurs when employees decide to quite or retire |
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functional turnover |
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dysfunctional turnover |
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organizational diversity |
a variety of demographic, cultural, and personal difference among the people who work there and the customers who do business there |
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glass ceiling |
invisible barrier that makes it difficult for women and minorities to rise above a certain level in the organization |
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sexual harassment |
form of discrimination in which unwelcome sexual advances, request for sexual favors, or other verbal or physical conducts of a sexual nature occurs. |
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2 types of sexual harassment |
-quid pro quo when employment outcomes, such as hiring, promotion, or simply keeping ones job, depend on whether an individual submits to being sexually harassed-hostile work environment occurs when unwelcome and demeaning sexually related behavior creates an intimidating, hostile, and offensive work environment |
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disparate treatment |
intentional discrimination, occurs when people, despite being qualified, are intentionally not given the same hiring, promotion, or membership opportunities as other employees because of their race, color, age, sex, ethnic group, national origin, or religious beliefs |
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adverse impact |
unintentional discrimination, occurs when members of a particular race, sex, or ethnic group are unintentionally harmed or disadvantaged because they are hired, promoted, or trained (or any other employment decision) at substantially lower rates than others |
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arrogative action |
different concept, refers to purposeful steps taken by an organization to create employment opportunities for minorities and women |
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ways diversity can leave to a competitive advantage |
-decreases dysfunctional turnover -decreases absenteeism -helps companies avoid expensive lawsuits -drives business growth - |
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types of diversity training |
-awareness training -skill-based diversity training -diversity audits and pairing |
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surface level diversity |
consists of differences that are immediately observable, typically unchangeable and easy to measure |
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deep level diversity |
consist of differences that are communicated through verbal and nonverbal behaviors and are recognized only through extended interaction
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personality |
the relatively stable set of behaviors attitudes, and emotions displayed over time that make people different from each other |
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Big 5 personality traits |
-openness to experience -conscientiousness -extraversion -agreeableness -neuroticism |
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openness to experience |
the degree to which someone is curious, broad-minded, and open to new ideas, things, and experiences; is spontaneous; has a high tolerance for ambiguity |
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conscientiousness |
the degree to which someone isorganized, hardworking, responsible, persevering, thorough, and achievement oriented. KEY to performance! |
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Extraversion |
the degree to which someone is angry,depressed, anxious, emotional,insecure, or excitable. he degree to which someone is active, assertive, gregarious, sociable, talkative, and energized by others. In contrastto extraverts, introverts are less active, prefer to be alone, and are shy,quiet, and reserved. |
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Agreeableness |
is the degree to which someone is cooperative, polite, flexible, forgiving,good-natured, tolerant, and trusting. |
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Neuroticism |
the degree to which someone is angry,depressed, anxious, emotional,insecure, or excitable. |
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content perspectives motivation |
-focus on needs and deficiencies of individuals -try to answer the question, "what factors in the workplace motivate people?" |
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content perspectives of motivation |
-Maslow's hierarchy of needs -Herzberg's two-factor theory -McClelland's achievement, power, and affiliation needs |
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motivation (DIP) |
-motivation represents the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior -Direction refers to the path along which people engage their effort -intensity is the amount of effort allocated to the goal -persistence is the continuing effort for a certain amount of time |
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ABC's of behavior |
antecedents behavior consequences |
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ability |
the degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills, and talent needed to do a job well |
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role perceptions |
how well someone performs the requirements of the job |
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situational factors |
factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies, and resources that have an effect on job performance |
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motivation as it relates to MARS model and job performance |
effort, the degree to which someone works hard to do the job well |
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needs |
physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being; they are mostly conscious deficiencies that energize or trigger behavior to satisfy those needs |
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs |
-physiology: attending to the basic survival and biological functions -security: seeking a safe physical and emotional environment -belongingness: experiencing love and affection -esteem: having a positive self-image/self-respect and recognition and respect from others -selfs-actualization: realizing one's potential for personal growth and development |
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extrinsic rewards |
tangible and visible to others and are given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors |
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intrinsic rewards |
the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake |
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equity theory |
-theory stating that people asses who fairly they have been treated accordion to two key factors: inputs and outcomes -people will be motivate at work when they perceive that they are being treated fairly -regardless of the actual level of rewards people receive, they must also perceive that, relative others, they are being treated fairly |
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5 methods to restore equity |
-changing inputs by trying harder or slacking off -changing outcomes by demanding a raise -distorting ratios by altering perceptions of self or of others -leaving situation by quitting the job -choosing another person to compare yourself with |
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expectancy theory |
motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it |
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components to the expectancy theory |
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reinforcement theory |
-focuses on the role of consequences as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time -assumes: behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated; behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeated -process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior |
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4 processes of reinforcement |
-positive reinforcement -negative reinforcement -punishment -extinction |
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positive reinforcement |
strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed |
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negative reinforcement |
strengths behavior by removing or withholding a negative consuquences
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punishment |
weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed
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extinction |
weakest undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing that behavior
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goal setting theory |
-proposes that people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their thoughts and behaviors toward a particular end -well crafted goals are motivating |
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5 core job characteristics of jobs that can be redesigned |
-skill variety -task identity -task significance -autonomy -feedback |
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skill variety |
the number of different activities performed in a job |
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task identity
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the degree to which a job, from beginning to end, requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
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task significance
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the degree to which a job is perceived to have substantial impact on others inside or outside the organization
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autonomy
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the degree to which a job gives workers the discretion, freedom, and independence to decide how and when to accomplish the work
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feedback
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the amount of information the job provides to workers about their work performance
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3 internally motivating states in the JCM |
-motivation increase when employees have the required skills and knowledge to master there more challenging work -give employees more autonomy over their work is a form of job enrichment -empowerment is the process of sharing power with employees, thereby enhancing their confidence and ability to perform their jobs and their belief |
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empowerment |
-enabling workers to set own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence -permanently passing decision-making authority and responsibility from managers to workers |
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participation |
-giving employees a voice in making decisions about work |
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leadership |
-people who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force
-people who are accepted as leaders by others |
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importance of vision for good leadership |
-necessary for effective leadership -can be developed for any job, work unit or organization -managers who do no develop into strong leaders fail to develop a clear vision in many cases |
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Management vs. Leadership |
-major differences between the leader and the manager relates to their source of power and level of compliance
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management power |
-come from organization structure
-promotes stability, order, and problem solving within the structure |
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leadership power |
-comes from personal sources, such as personal interest, goals, and values -promotes vision, creativity and change |
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5 sources of power for leadership |
-legitimate power -reward power -coercive power -referent power -expert power |
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legitimate power |
power granted through the organizational hierarchy |
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reward power |
the power to give or withhold rewards |
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coercive power |
the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat |
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referent power
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the personal power that accuses to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma |
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expert power |
power derived from the possession of information or expertise |
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3 consequences of power |
-commitment -compliance -resistance |
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5 general perspectives of leadership |
-power-influence -leadership-traits approach -leadership behaviors approach -situational approach -visionary leadership approach |
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power-influence approach |
attempts to explain leadership effectiveness in terms of the amount of power possessed by a leader
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leadership trait approach |
assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify and predict who would become leaders |
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leadership behaviors approach |
assume that effective leaders somehow behaved differently from ineffective leaders |
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situational approach |
argues that the appropriate behaviors for a leader to adopt depend on context, and what will work in some situations will not work in others
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visionary leadership approach |
suggests that effective leaders "transform" organizations through their vision
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components of power-influence perspective |
-effective leader rely on the amount of power the possess -the power comes from any of the sources previously discussed ~personal power that flows from expertise ~a network of allies ~individual attributes ~skille organizational politicians |
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issues of trait perspective |
-there is little agreement among researches about the which of these traits are important or necessary to have effective leadership -not all traits are equally important; may be context dependent and not all great leaders demonstrate all traits |
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OSU Studies basic leadership styles |
-initiating-structure behavior -consideration behavior |
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initiating-structure behavior
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-the leader defines leader-subordinate role expectations formalizes communications, and sets working agenda
-a leaders ability to initiate structure primarily affects subordinates job performance |
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consideration behavior |
-the leader shows concern for subordinate and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate
-consideration primarily affects subordinates' job satisfaction |
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least preferred coworker (LPC) |
-style of leadership varies with situational favorableness -leader style = the way that leaders generally behave, underlying needs and personalities -effectiveness depends on leader style and the contingency -leaders to be incapable of changing their leader styles |
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LPC Measure |
~asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well -Peoplewho describe their LPC in a positiveway(scoring 64 and above) have relationship-oriented leadershipstyles. -Peoplewho describe their LPC in a negativeway(scoring57 or below) have task-oriented leadershipstyles |
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LPC situational variables |
-leader-member relations -task structure -position power |
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leader-member relations |
the nature ofthe relationship between theleaderand the work group(how much do they respect, like, trust etc.).
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task structure |
thedegree to which the group’s task is defined. |
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position power |
Thepower vested in the leader’s position(arethey able to hire, fire, reward, punish etc.).
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Path goal Theory |
-to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace -to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards -to clear the path so that followers can achieve their goals |
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path goal theory behaviors |
-directive -supportive -participative -achievement-oreiented |
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directive |
letting subordinates know what is expected of them giving guidance and direction and scheduling work
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supportive |
being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals
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participative |
consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestion, and allowing participation in decision making
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achievement-oriented |
setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates
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3 functions of a leader according to path goal theory |
1. clarify the path
2. clear the path 3. offer rewards |
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leader-member exchange approach |
Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each oftheir subordinates. |
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vertical dyads |
Leadersform uniqueindependentrelationships with each subordinate (dyads) in which the subordinate becomes amember of the leader’s out-group or in-group
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leadership substitutes |
a concept that identifies situations inwhich leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by characteristics ofsubordinates, the task, and the organization.
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categories of substitutes |
subordinate task organization |
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charismatic leadership |
-interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance,
-can command the loyalty of followers; however it can work against effective leadership if usedimproperly –Areself-confident leaders –Havea firm conviction in their beliefs and ideals–Possessa strong need to influence people. –Createexceptionally strong relationships with followers –Possess“magnetic personalities” that are larger than life and attractivetoothers |
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ethical charismatics style of leadership |
-use power to serve others -allow followers to help develop the vision -engage in two-way communication, seek out viewpoints on critical issues -want followers to think and question status quo -focus on developing people -follow self-guided principles that may go against popular opinion |
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unethical charismatic styles of leadership |
-use power to dominate or manipulate others for personal gain -sole source of vision, which they use to serve their personal agendas -engage in one-way communication and are not open to suggestion -have inflated egos, thrive on attention and admiration of sycophants, avoid feedback -dont want followers to think but want uncritical acceptance of leaders ideas -are insensitive and unresponsive to followers' needs and aspirations -follow standards only if they satisfy immediate self-interests, manipulate impressions so other think they are doing the right thing |
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transformational leadership |
leaders can be transformational or transactional in their dealings with followers |
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transformational leadership characteristics |
–Generatingawarenessandacceptance of a group’s purpose and mission and helping employeesto see beyond their own needs and self-interests forthe good of the group.
–Beingagents ofstrategic & organizational change –Reenergizingtroubledorganizations, pushing them in new strategic directions; e.g.,changingoperations, organizational architecture & culture. |
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transactional leadership |
-Based on an exchange process in which followers are rewarded for good performance andpunished for poor performance.
-helps organizations achieve its current objectives and tries to keep it running efficiently while not makingchanges; i.e. they maintain the status quo. |
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4 I's of transformational leadership |
-idealized influence -inspirational motivation -intellectual stimulation -individual consideration |
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idealized influence |
theyput others’ needs ahead of their own, share risks, are admired, respected &emulated; they are ethical&maintain high ethical standards.
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inspirational motivation |
theymotivate and inspire followers by providing meaningandchallenge to their work; clearly communicating expectations and demonstratingcommitment to goals; help followers envision the future, leading to greaterenthusiasm and optimism about the future.
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intellectual stimulation |
encouragefollowers to be creative and innovative,toquestion assumptions, and to look at problems and situations in new way
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individualized consideration |
pay special attention to followers’ individual needsbycreating learning opportunities, accepting and tolerating individualdifferences etc.
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importance of courage |
–Seeingthings as they are & facing them head-on, making no excusesandharboring no wishful illusions –Sayingwhat needs to be said to those who need to hearit(in a constructive rather than destructive manner!) –persistingdespiteresistance criticism, abuse & setbacks.
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