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274 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
The adrenals are located where?
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One on top of each kidney
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What does the Medulla of the adrenal glads produce?
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epinephrine and norepinephrine
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How many hormones does the cortex of the adrenal glads produce?
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3
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The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from what embryological material?
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mesoderm
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The medulla of the adrenal gland is derived from what embryological material?
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ectoderm
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What are the zones of the adrenal cortex?
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zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis
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The zona glomerulosa secretes what?
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mineralocorticoids mainly aldosterone
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The zona fasciculata secretes what?
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glucocorticoids mainly cortisol
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The zona reticularis secretes what?
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androgens mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
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The adrenal medulla chromaffin cells secrete what?
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epinephrine and nonepinephrine
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Steroid hormones
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carried in plasma by binding proteins, have cytosolic receptors, regulate gene expression
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What does aldosterone do?
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increases the rate of Na reabsorption by the kidneys increasing Na blood levels
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What does cortisol do?
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Increases fat and protein breakdown, increases glucose synthesis, decreases inflammatory response
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What does DHEA do?
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androgens converted to other steroids
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What does epinephrine do?
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In general preparation for physical activity
increased cardiac output, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart, increased release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood |
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What are the target tissues for epinephrine and norepinephrine?
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heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
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What are the target tissues for cortisol?
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most tissues
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What is the target tissue for aldosterone?
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kindeny
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What are the target tissues for sex steroids (primarily androgens)?
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many tissues
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What hormone is responsible for 95% of hormonal activity?
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aldosterone
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Aldosterone's funtion is what?
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To maintain homeostasis of Na+ and K+
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Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of ____ and excretion of ______.
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Na+; K+ and H+
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Aldosterone adjusts what?
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blood pressure and blood volume
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Hypersecretion of aldosterone causes what?
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tumor producing aldosteronism: high blood pressure caused by retention of Na+ and water in blood
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What are cortisol functions?
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Helps to regulate metabolism (increases glu)
Increase rate of protein catabolism Gluconeogenesis Stimulate lipolysis Provide resistance to stress by making nutrients avalible for ATP production Raise BP via vasoconstriction Anti-inflammatory Depress immune responses |
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What are the target cells for glucocorticoid hormones?
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Peripheral tissues, such as skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue = inhibits glucose use
Immune tissues = anti-inflammatory Target cells for epinephrine = receptor molecules decrease without glucocorticoids |
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Describe the regulation of cortisol secretion.
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Stress, hypoglycemia→ release of cortiocotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamic neurons→ in anterior pituitary CRH binds and stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)→ ACTH binds to receptors in the adrenal cortex and stimulates the secretion of glucocorticoids→ cortisol inhibits CRH and ACTH secretion
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The zona reticularis produces small amounts of what?
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Male hormone
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DHEA does what?
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Insignificant in males
Contributes to female sex drive Is converted to estrogens Stimulates growth of axillary hair and pubic hair Contributes to growth spurts |
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What stimulates secretion of DHEA?
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ACTH
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What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
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Genetic disorder, defective cortisol synthesis, adrenal cortex enlarges and there is an accumulation of cortisol precursors, some of which a are converted to testosterone.
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What is another term for masculinization?
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Virilism
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Virilism in females causes what?
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Adrenogenital syndrom
Growth of a beard and male distribution of body hair, deeper voice, atrophy of the breasts, growth of clitoris |
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Virilism in males causes what?
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Nothing it is masked by the effects of testosterone.
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What are the clinical features of Addison’s disease (primary adrenocortical insufficiency)?
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Hypoglycemia (anorexia, weight loss, nausea, vomiting, weakness), hypotension, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, decreased pubic and axillary hair in females, hyperpigmentation
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What are the ACTH levels in Addison’s disease?
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Increased
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What is the treatment of Addison’s disease?
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Replacement of glucocorticods and mineralocorticoids
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What are the clinical features of Cushing’s syndrome (primary adrenal hyperplasia)?
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Hyperglycemia (muscle wasting), central obesity, round face, supraclavicular fat, buffalo hump, osteoporosis striae, virilzation and menstrual disorders in females, hypertension
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What are the ACTH levels in Cushing’s syndrome?
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Decreased
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What is the treatment of Cushing’s syndrome?
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Ketoconazole, metyrapone
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What are the clinical features of Cushing’s disease
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Hyperglycemia (muscle wasting), central obesity, round face, supraclavicular fat, buffalo hump, osteoporosis striae, virilzation and menstrual disorders in females, hypertension
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What are the levels of ACTH in Cushing’s disease?
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Increased
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What is the treatment of Cushing’s disease?
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Surgical removal of ACTH secreting tumor
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What are the clinical features of Conn’s syndrome (aldosterone-secreting tumor)?
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Hypertension, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis (decreased rennin levels)
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What are the treatments for Conn’s syndrome?
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Aldosterone antagonist (e.g., spironolactone), surgery
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What are the clinical features of 21β-Hydeoxylase deficiency?
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Virilization of females, symtoms of deficiency of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
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What are the levels of ACTH in 21β-Hydeoxylase deficiency?
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Increased
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What is the treatment of 21β-Hydeoxylase deficiency?
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Replacement of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
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What are the clinical features of 17α-Hydroxylase deficiency?
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Lack of pubic and axillary hair in females, symptoms of deficiency of glucocorticoids, symptoms of excess mineralocorticoids
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What are the levels of ACTH in 17α-Hydroxylase deficiency?
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Increased
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What are some treatments of 17α-Hydroxylase deficiency?
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Replacement of glucocorticoids, aldosterone antagonist
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What is Cushing’s syndrome often attributed to?
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Increased ATCH levels most often non-pituitary tumors, or adrenal tumors
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What are the symptoms of hyposecretion of aldosterone?
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Hyponatremia (low blood levels of Na)
Hyperkalemia (high blood levels of K) Acidosis Low Blood Pressure Tremors and tetany of skeletal muscles Polyuria |
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What are the symptoms of hypersecretion of aldosterone?
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Slight hypematremia (high blood levels of Na)
Hypokalemia (low blood levels of K) Alkalosis High blood pressure Weakness of skeletal muscle Acidic urine |
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What are they symptoms of hyposecretion of cortisol?
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Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose levels)
Depressed immune system Weight loss from unused proteins and fats from diet Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting Increased skin pigmentation |
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What are the symptoms of hypersecretion of cortisol?
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Hyperglycemia (high blood glucose levels; adrenal diabetes)
depressed immune system distruction of tissue proteins moon face and buffalo hump emotional effects including euphoria and depression |
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What are the symptoms of hyposecretion of androgens?
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In women reduction of pubic and axillary hair
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What are they symptoms of hypersecretion of androgens
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In women hirsuitism (excessive facial and body hair), acne, increased sex drive, regression on breast tissue, loss of regular menses
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Where does chromaffin cells recive their innervation?
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sympathetic nervous system
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Describe the regulation of adrenal medullary secretions.
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Stress, physical acticity, low blood glucose levels stimulates the hypothalamus→AP travel through the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system→stimulates the adrenal medulla →increases norepinephrine and epinephrine secretions→goes to target cells
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Where is the hypothalamus located?
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Above where pituitary gland is suspended from stalk (infundibulum).
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Where does the hypothalamus receive input from?
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Cortex, thalamus, limbic system & internal organs.
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The pituitary gland and hypothalamus is where what systems interact?
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Nervous and Endocrine systems.
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How does the hypothalamus regulate secretory activity of pituitary gland?
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Through neurohormones (releasing and inhibiting) and action potentials.
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What is another name for the pituitary gland?
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Hypophysis
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Where is the pituitary gland found?
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In sella turcica of sphenoid.
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What attaches the pituitary gland to the brain?
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Infundibulum
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How much of the pituitary gland is anterior lobe and what does it develop from?
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75%; develops from roof of mouth (Rathke’s pouch).
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How much of the pituitary gland is posterior lobe and what does it develop from?
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25%; develops from floor of neural tube – diencephalon.
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What is found in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
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Ends of axons of 10,000 neurons found in hypothalamus and neuroglial cells called pituicytes.
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What is the name for the posterior pituitary?
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Neurohypophysis
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What is the name for the anterior pituitary?
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Adenohypophysis
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What are the three distinct areas of the anterior pituitary?
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Pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis
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What does the Supra-Optic Nucleus contain/secrete?
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5/6 of ADH.
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What does the Paraventricular Nucleus contain/secrete?
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Oxytocin and 1/6 of ADH.
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What is the advantage of the hypothalamophyophysial portal system?
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Achieves speed and saves energy. Allows specificity.
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What is the flow of blood to the Anterior Pituitary?
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Controlling hormones enter blood, travel through portal veins, and enter pituitary at capillaries.
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What are the hormones of the Posterior Pituitary Gland?
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin.
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What two hormones are secreted by the same cell type?
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FSH and LH.
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What secretes HGH?
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Somatotrophs
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What secretes TSH?
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Thyrotrophs
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What secretes FSH?
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Gonadotrophs
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What secretes LH?
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Gonadotrophs
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What secretes PRL?
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Lactotrophs
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What secretes ACTH?
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Corticotrophs
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What secretes Melanocyte-stimulating hormone?
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Croticotrophs
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What is the releasing hormone of HGH?
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GHRH
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What is the releasing hormone of TSH?
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TRH
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What is the releasing hormone of FSH?
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GnRH
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What is the releasing hormone of LH?
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GnRH
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What is the releasing hormone of PRL?
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PRH; TRH.
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What is the releasing hormone of ACTH?
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CRH
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What is the releasing hormone of Melanoctye-stimulating hormone?
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CRH
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What is the inhibiting hormone of HGH?
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GHIH
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What is the inhibiting hormone of TSH?
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GHIH
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What is the inhibiting hormone of PRL?
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PIH, which is dopamine.
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What is the inhibiting hormone of Melanocyte-stimulating hormone?
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Dopamine
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Human Growth Hormone is _____ - soluble.
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Water
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What does HGH increase synthesis of within target cells?
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IGFs that act locally or enter bloodstream.
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What are common target cells of HGH?
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Liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage and bone.
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What kind of growth does HGH increase?
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Hypertrophy (cell growth) & Hyperplasia (cell division) by increasing their uptake of amino acids & synthesis of proteins.
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HGH stimulates lipolysis in adipoctyes so that fatty acids can be used for what?
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ATP
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What does HGH stimulate in the liver?
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Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis – to increase blood glucose level.
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What is the effect of HGH on the uptake of glucose by muscle?
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It retards the uptake so blood glucose levels remain high enough to supply brain.
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What stimulates the release of GHRH from the hpothalamus?
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Low blood sugar. Anterior pituitary releases more hGH & more glycogen broken down into glucose by liver cells.
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High blood sugar stimulates release of what hormone from the hypothalamus?
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GHIH
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What time of day is growth hormone released most?
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At night during sleep cycle.
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What is Acromegaly?
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High levels of growth hormone after puberty.
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What are typical findings in Acromegaly?
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Osteoarthritic vertebral changes, visual field changes (bitemporal hemianopia), Hirsutism, gynecomastra and lactation, & enlarged hands and feet.
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What can excess growth hormone lead to?
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Insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. Raises blood glucose concentration, pancreas releases insulin continually, and beta-cell burnout.
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What does the Diabetogenic Effect eventually cause?
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Diabetes mellitus, if no insulin activity can occur.
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What stage in life is growth hormone secretion greatest?
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Puberty
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What family of hormones are glycoproteins?
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TSH, FSH, and LH.
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What does TSH stimulate the synthesis & secretion of?
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T3 (triiodothryonine) and T4 (thyroxine).
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What is the effect of TSH on metabolic rate?
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Stimulated
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What is the very specific target of TSH?
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Thryoid gland.
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What are the functions of FSH in females?
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Initiates the formation of follicles within the ovary & stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen
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What is the function of FSH in males?
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Stimulates sperm production in testes.
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In females, LH stimulates the ovary to do what?
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Secrete estrogen, ovulation of secondary ooctye, and formation of corpus luteum which secretes progesterone.
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What does LH stimulate in males?
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Stimulates interstitial (Leydig) cells to secrete testosterone.
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Under the right conditions, what does prolactin (PRL) cause?
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Milk production (synthesis).
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What does the act of ‘suckling’ cause?
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Reduces levels of hypothalamic inhibition and prolactin levels rise along with milk production.
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What hormone stimulates breast development, lactogenesis, and inhibits ovulation?
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Prolactin (PRL).
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What time of day is Prolactin (PRL) release increased?
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During night/sleep (10pm – 7am).
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What hormone stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex that produce glucocorticoids?
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ACTH
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What is the function of Melanocyte-Stimulating hormone?
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Function not certain in humans but increases skin pigmentation in frogs.
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Does the posterior pituitary gland synthesize hormones?
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NO
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What do the neurons of the posterior pituitary gland release?
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Two neurohormones that enter capillaries and the systemic circulation – ADH (synthesized in the supraoptic nucleus) & Oxytocin (synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus).
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What is the difference in the structure of ADH and Oxytocin?
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Only 2 amino acids different.
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What are the two target tissues of Oxytocin involved in neuroendocrine reflexes?
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Uterus and mammary glands.
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What effect does Oxytocin have during the delivery of a baby?
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The baby’s head stretches cervix, hormone release enhances uterine muscle contraction, and then baby and placenta are delivered.
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What effect does Oxtyocin have after the delivery of baby?
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Causes muscle contraction and milk ejection.
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Oxytocin during Labor:
|
Stimulation of uterus by baby
Hormone release from posterior pituitary Uterine smooth muscle contracts until birth of baby Baby pushed into cervix, increase hormone release More muscle contraction occurs When baby is born, positive feedback ceases |
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What is another name for Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?
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Vasopressin
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What is the major goal of ADH?
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Decrease water loss to decrease blood osmolarity.
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How does ADH decrease blood osmolarity?
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Decreases urine production by increasing water reabsorption from kidneys; decreases sweating.
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What is the effect of ADH on blood pressure?
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Increase BP.
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Increased plasma osmolarity is the major stimulus for what hormone?
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ADH
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What is the effect of dehydration and overhydration on ADH?
|
Dehydration – ADH released
Overhydration – ADH inhibited |
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Lack of ADH causes what disease?
|
Diabetes insipidus.
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Where is the pineal gland located?
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Roof of the third ventricle. (diencephalon)
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What is responsible for the setting of the biological clock?
|
melatonin
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What is a synthetic precursor of melatonin?
|
seretonin
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melatonin does what?
|
enhances sleep, it is secreted in the dark (11pm-7am), can decrease GnRH
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Whatdoes arginine vasotocin do?
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regulates function on reproductive system in some animals
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What does melatonin secretion cause?
|
sleepiness due to lack of stimulation from sympathetic ganglion
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Explain Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Jet Lag.
|
Depression that occurs during winter moths when the day length is short.
Due to overproduction of melatonin |
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What are other roles of melatonin not related to circadian rhythm?
|
induces natural sleep
inhibits reproductive hormones useful as a contraceptive antioxidant |
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Where is the thyroid located?
|
on each side of the trachea is a lobe of the thyroid
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What is unique about the thyroid compaired to other endocrine glands?
|
It can store its hormones in large quantities for up to 100 days
|
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Histologicaly what is the thyroid made of ?
|
follicles, parafollicular cells
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parafollicular cells secrete what?
|
calcitonin
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Calcitonin does what?
|
reduces calcium concentration in body fluids
|
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Thyroid hormones include?
|
triiodothryronine or T3
tetraiodothyronine or T4 or thyroxine |
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T3 an T4 can do what?
|
increased rate of glucose, fat, protein metabolism in many tissues thus increasing body temperature
|
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Is T3 or T4 predominately secreted form?
|
T4
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Is T3 or T4 the most potent form?
|
T3
|
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HOw is thyroid hormone formed?
|
Iodide trapping by follicular cells
Synthesis of thyroglobulin (TGB) Release of TGB into colloid Iodination of tyrosine in colloid formation of T3 and T4 by combinding T1 and T2 together uptake and digestion of TGB by follicle cells secretion of T3 and T4 into blood |
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What are the actions of T3 and T4?
|
Responsible for our metabolic rate, protein metabolic, breakdown of fats, use of glocose for ATP production "calorigenic"
|
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What does calcitonin do?
|
responsible for building of bone and stops bone reabsorption of bone, lowers blood Ca+2 levels
|
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What are the whole body effects of thyroid hormone?
|
growth formation, bone maturation, maturation of CNS, ↑Na+ K+ ATPase, ↑O2 production, ↑heat production, ↑BMR, ↑glucose absorption, ↑glycogenolysis,↑gluconeogenesis, ↑lipolysis, ↑protein synthesis and degradation, ↑cardiac output
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What are the effects of thyroid hormone on calorigenic action?
|
Increased O2 consuption and thus metabolism, in all tissues except: brain, testes, uterus, lymphnodes, spleen and pituitary
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What are the effects of thyroid hormones on the CNS?
|
development of the CNS, reflexes, catecholamine
|
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How does thyroid hormone effect the heart?
|
affect the type of myosin present
|
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What are the effects of thyroid hormone on respiration?
|
increase resting respiratory rate, minute ventilation
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What are the effects of thyroid hormones on CHO metabolism?
|
Increased rate of absorption from intestine
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What are the effects of thyroid hormones on cholesterol metabolism?
|
lower cholesterol level in plasma
|
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What are the effects of thyroid hormones on growth?
|
bone growth and maturation
|
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What is the control system for the secretion of T3 and T4?
|
Negative feed back system
low blood levels of hormones stimulate the hypothalamus Which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release TSH TSH stimulates gland to raise blood levels |
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What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
|
Increased metabolic rate
Weight loss, increased appetite Warm flushed skin Weakmuscles that exhibit tremors Hyper-reflexia Exophthalmos (edema behind the eye balls) Hyperactivity, insomnia Soft smooth hair and skin Increased iodine uptake Almost always develops goiter |
|
What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?
|
Decreased metabolic rate
Weight gain, reduced appetite Dry and cold skin Waek, flabby skeletal muscles, sluggish Myxedema (edema) Apathetic, somnolent Coarse hair, rough dry skin Decreased iodine uptake Possible goiter Cretinism ( starts at birth) mental retardation mental slowness |
|
What are some causes of hyperthyroidism?
|
Graves' disease (increased thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins)
Thyroid neoplasm Excess TSH secretion Exogenous T3 or T4 |
|
What are some causes of hypothyroidism?
|
Thyroiditis(AI or Hashimoto's Thyroiditis)
Surgery for hyperthyroidism I deficiency Congenital (cretinism) Decreased TRH or TSH |
|
What are the TSH levels in hyperthyroidism?
|
Decreased (feedback inhibition on T3 on the anterior lobe)
Increased (if defect is in the anterior lobe) |
|
What are the TSH levels in hypothyroidism?
|
Increased (by negative feedback if primary defect is in the thyroid gland)
|
|
What are some treatments for hyperthyroidism?
|
Propylthiouracil (inhibits peroxidase enzyme and thyroid hormone synthesis)
Thyroidectomy 131I (destroys thyroid) βAdrenergic blocking agents |
|
What are the treatments for hypothyroidism?
|
Thyroid hormone replacement therapy
|
|
Where are the parathyroid glands located?
|
4 pea shaped glands found on the back of the thyroid gland
|
|
What is the histological composition of the parathyroid gland?
|
principal cells(chief)
Oxyphil cell |
|
What is produced by the principal cells?
|
parathyroid hormone PTH
|
|
What is the function of the oxyphil cells?
|
unknown
|
|
Parathyroid hormone is a major regulator of what?
|
Ca+2, Mg2+, and HPO4 2-
|
|
Parathyroid hormone raises Ca+2 blood levels which does what?
|
↑ activity of osteoclasts
↑ reabsorption of Ca+2 by kidney ↑ inhibits reabsorption of phospahate promotes formation of calcitriol (vit. D3) |
|
What is the effects of PTH on bones?
|
stimulates osteoclasts resulting in bone reabsorption and increase of Ca+2 and HPO4 2- levels in blood
|
|
What is PTH effects on the kidneys?
|
Slows rate of Ca+2 and Mg+2 loss from the blood into the urine
Increases loss of phosphat into urine Stimulates formation of calcitriol |
|
What is the effect of PTH on the GI?
|
indirectly calcitriol increases intestinal absorption of Ca, Mg, phosphate
|
|
What stimulates the secretion of PTH?
|
low blood Ca+2 levels
|
|
What is the cause of hypoparathyroidism?
|
accidental removal during thyroidectomy
|
|
What are the causes of primary hyperparathyroidism?
|
a result of abnormal parathyroid function -- adenomas of the parathyroid gland (90%), hyperplasia of parathyroid idiopathic cells (9%), carcinomas (1%)
|
|
What are the causes of secondary hyperparathyroidism?
|
caused by conditions that reduce blood Ca+2 levels, such as inadequate Ca+2 in the diet, inadequate levels of vit. D, pregnancy, or lactation
|
|
What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?
|
hypocalcemia, normal bone structure, increased neuromuscular excitability, tetany, laryngospasm, and death from asphyxiation can result, flaccid heart muscle, cardiac arythemia may develop, diarrhea
|
|
What are the symptoms of hyperparathyroidism?
|
Hypercalcemia or normal Ca+2 levels; calcium carbonate in kidenys, lungs, blood vessels, and gastric mucosa; bone weakness; neuromuscular system less excitable; increased force of contraction of heart muscle; constapation
|
|
What is a major sorce of Ca in the body?
|
bones
|
|
Where in the body systems does Ca ions play roles?
|
nerve and muscle cell function, blood clotting, enzyme function in many biochemical reactions
|
|
What does elevated extracellular Ca levels do?
|
prevent membrane depolarization
|
|
What does decreased levels of extracellular Ca cause?
|
spontaneous action potential generation
|
|
What does Vitamin D stimulate?
|
synthesis of Ca-binding protein in intestinal cells
Ca-ATPase to pump it out of cells into capillaries |
|
What does hypercalcemia cause?
|
Depresses NS and neuromuscular reflexes; hyporeflexia, lethargy, decreased QT interval, constipation, loss of appetite, CAPO4 starts to precipitate
|
|
What does hypocalcemia cause?
|
NS excitement, hyperreflexia, tetany, Chvostek sign, Trousseau sign
|
|
A person with hyperparathyroidism has what?
|
stones, bones, groans
|
|
Describe the endocrine system.
|
Hormones are released into the blood stream and travel throughout the body. The results may take hours, but last longer.
|
|
Describe the nervous system.
|
Certain parts release hormones into the blood stream, the rest release neurotransmitters, to excite or inhibit the nerve, muscle and gland cells. The results happen in milliseconds, but the effects are brief.
|
|
What are the mediator molecules in the nervous system?
|
neurotransmitters
|
|
What are the mediator molecules in the endocrine system?
|
hormones
|
|
Where is the site of mediator action in the nervous system?
|
Close to the site of release of the neurotransmitter
|
|
Where is the site of mediator action in the endocrine system?
|
Far from the site of release(usually)
|
|
What is the target of the mediator molecules in the nervous system?
|
muscle
|
|
What is the target of the mediator molecules of the endocrine system?
|
any of the body cells
|
|
What is the time of on set of the mediator molecules of the nervous system?
|
typically within milliseconds
|
|
What is the time of on set of the mediator molecules of the endocrine system?
|
seconds to hours or days
|
|
What is the duration of action of the mediator molecules of the nervous system?
|
generally briefer
|
|
What is the duration of the action of the mediator molecules of the endocrin system?
|
generally longer
|
|
What are some of the things that regulate hormone secretion?
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neuronal, hormonal, other substances, e.g. metabolites
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What type of hormones are circulating hormones?
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endocrine hormones
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What type of local hormone works on neighboring cells?
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paracrines
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What type of local hormone works on the same cells that they are secreted from?
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autocrines
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What are the types of chemical messengers?
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neural
endocrine neuroendocrine paracrine autocrine |
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Describe and give an example of an autocrine.
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Secreted by cells in a local area and influences the activity of the same cell type from which it was secreted. e.g. prostaglandins
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Describe and give an example of a paracrine.
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Produced by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into tissue spaces; usually has a localized effect on the other tissues. e.g. histamine, progstaglandins
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Describe and give an example of a hormone.
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Secreted into the blood by specialized cells; travels some distance to target tissues; influences specific activities. e.g. thyroxine, insulin
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Describe and give an example of a neurohormone.
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Produced by neurons and functions like hormones. e.g. oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone
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Describe and give an example of a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator.
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Produced by neurons and secreted into extracellular spaces by presynaptic nerve terminals. e.g. acetylcholine, epinephrine
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What is a pheromone?
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They are secreted into the environment and modifies the behavior of other individuals. e.g. sex pheromones
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Give an example of negative feed back in the endocrine system.
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thyroid hormones
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Give and example of positive feed back in the endocrine system
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oxytocin during uterine contractions
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In what forms are hormones transported?
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free or bound forms
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What are some lipid soluble hormones?
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steroids (aldosterone, cortisol, androgens, calcitriol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone), thyroid hormones (T3 &T4), nitric oxide
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What are some water soluble hormones?
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amines (epinephrine and norepinephorin, melatonin, histamine, serotonin)
Peptides and proteins (all hypothalmic releasing hormones, oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, HGH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, MSH, Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, PTH, calcitonin, gastrin, secretin, CCK, GIP, erythropoietin, Leptin) Eicosanolds (prostoglandins, leukotrienes) |
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What are the types of hormone receptors?
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membrane bound
in cytosol in nucleus |
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Do membrane bound receptors bind to lipid or water soluble hormones?
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water
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Do intracellular receptors bind to lipid or water soluble receptors?
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lipid
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What is the down regulation of hormone receptors?
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excess hormone, produces a decrease in the number of receptors
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What is the up regulation of hormone receptors?
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deficiency of hormones produces an increase in the number of receptors
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What is desensitation?
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the signaling cascade becomes exhausted
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4 ways of target cell desensitization
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sequestration
degradation inactivation downstream signaling inactivation |
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In what forms are hormones transported?
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free or bound forms
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What are some lipid soluble hormones?
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steroids (aldosterone, cortisol, androgens, calcitriol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone), thyroid hormones (T3 &T4), nitric oxide
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nitric oxideWhat are some water solubile hormones?
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amines (epinephrine and norepinephorin, melatonin, histamine, serotonin)
Peptides and proteins (all hypothalmic releasing hormones, oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, HGH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, MSH, Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, PTH, calcitonin, gastrin, secretin, CCK, GIP, erythropoietin, Leptin) Eicosanolds (prostoglandins, leukotrienes) |
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What are the types of hormone receptors?
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membrane bound
in cytosol in nucleus |
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Do membrane bound receptors bind to lipid or water soluble hormones?
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water
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Lipid soluble hormones and their actions on intracellular receptors
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The receptors are proteins
When bound to hormone the receptor-hormone complex activates genes They are slow acting because it takes time to produce mRNA They have a longer effect |
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What is the permissive effect?
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A second hormone, strengthens the effect of the first.
e.g. TH strenghtens epinephrine's effect on lipolysis |
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What is the synergistic effect?
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2 hormones acting together for greater effect
e.g. Estrogen and LH are both needed for oocyte production |
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What are antagonistic effects?
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2 hormones with opposite effects
e.g. insulin promotes glycongen formation and glucagon stimulates glycongen breakdown |
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The pancreas contains how many types of endocrine cells?
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4
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What are the cell types in the pancreatic islets?
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alpha cells (20%) produce glucagon
beta cells (70%) produce insulin delta cells (5%) produce somatostatin F cells produce pancreatic polypeptide |
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What are insulin's effects on glucose metabolism in muscle?
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Glucose uptake
glycogenesis |
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What are insulin's effects on glucose metabolism in the liver?
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promotes liver uptake,storage and use of glucose
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Is there an effect on the brain by insulin?
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no
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What are insulin's effects on lipid metabolism?
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promotes fat synthesis and storage
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What are insulin's effects on protein metabolism?
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promotes protein synthesis
it interacts synergistically with GH |
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What factors stimulate insulin secretion?
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increased glucose, increased amino acid, increased fatty acid and ketoacid concentrations, GH, GIP, vagal stimulation-acetylcholine
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What factors inhibit insulin secretion?
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decreased blood glucose, fasting, exercise
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What are glucagon's major effects??
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stimulates liver glycogenolysis
increases gluconeogenesis stimulates lipolysis |
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what are the stimulating factors for glucagon?
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fasting, decreased glucose [ ], increased aa [ ], CCK, acetylcholine
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What are some inhibiting factors for glucagon?
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insulin, somatostatin, increased fatty acid and ketoacid [ ]
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Where is insulin's target tissues?
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liver, adipose, muscle
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Where is glucagon's target tissue?
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liver
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somatostatin inhibits what?
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glucagon and insulin
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What is diabetes mellitus?
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results from inadequate secretion of insulin or inability of tissues to respond to insulin
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What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus?
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type I = insulin dependent
type II = non insulin dependent |
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What are eicosanoids?
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local hormones released by all body cells
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what are the 2 borad families of eicosanoids?
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leukotrienes
prostoglandins |
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What are the major role of prostaglandins E and F series?
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control of vascular smooth muscle activity
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What is prostacyclins/PGI effect?
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potent inhibitors of platelet aggregation
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What does thromboxanes do?
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regulates the changes in cellular shape needed for platelet aggregation
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What are the effects of leukotrienes?
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potent vasoconstrictors
increases vascular permeability induce inflammation or allergic responses |
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What is an important role of th thymus gland?
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hormones produced here promote proliferation and maturation of T cells
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What hormones are produced in the GI tract?
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gastrin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP), secreetin, CCK
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What hormones are produced by the placenta?
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hCG, estrogen, progesterone, hCS
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What hormones are produced by the kidneys?
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renin, erythropoietin (EOP), calcitriol
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What hormones are produced by the heart?
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atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
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What hormone is produced by the adipose tissue?
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leptin
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What are some growth factors?
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epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs), transforming growth factors (TGFs)
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