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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Localization of Function
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Different part of the brain responsible for different cognitive functions
o Hearing o Spatial Reasoning, etc. There are parts of the brain dedicated to language function |
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THALAMUS
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Part of the ‘Reptillian Forebrain’
Central relay station for sensory information |
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HYPOTHALAMUS
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HYPOTHALAMUS
Part of the mammalian Limbic System (memory-formation, emotions) The ‘Four F’s’: o Feeding o Fighting o Fleeing o Mating |
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CEREBRUM: CEREBRAL CORTEX
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The Latin ‘cortex’ means ‘bark’
Cortex is the surface of the brain, a.k.a. grey matter This is where information computation happens |
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Four lobes of cerebral cortex:
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Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Frontal lobe |
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Occipital lobe:
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vision
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Parietal lobe:
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spatial reasoning; body sensation (touch, pain, limb position)
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Temporal lobe:
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hearing, vocabulary
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Frontal lobe:
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high-level motor control; grammar.
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2 Brain areas for language are
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Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area. When they are
damaged, linguistic functions are impaired. |
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Lateralization of Language
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In about 97% of right-handed males, language function is lateralized to the left
hemisphere. In women/ left-handed males, language areas tend to be more symmetrical (left and right hemispheres). |
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Aphasia
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Aphasia is language disruption caused by damage to the brain. The damage in
different parts of the brain results in different kinds of disruption. The disruption tells us what function that part of the brain normally has. |
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BROCA’S APHASIA (Paul Broca, 1824 - 1880)
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Agrammatic (many grammatical errors)
Slow, effortful speech Grammar impaired in both speech and comprehension |
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Broca’s Area
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This part of the brain is closely associated with grammatical rules; not associated
with understanding the meaning of content words. |
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WERNICKE’S APHASIA (Carl Wernicke, 1848 - 1904)
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Fluent speech, but deprived of content
Word-finding problems (made-up words substitute words that they can not find) Difficulties in understanding others |
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ISOLATION APHASIA
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Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and connecting tissue spared
Damaged connections to other areas of the brain Difficulty initiating speech Repetition (‘echolatia’) with grammatical correction |
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Lateralization of Aphasia
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One study found that left hemisphere damage caused aphasia in
89% of men 77% of women. |
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PLASTICITY
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The ability of healthy brain tissue to ‘take over’ function of damaged tissue
Plasticity begins to decline around age five In adulthood, plasticity is extremely limited |
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BRAIN IMAGING
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Imaging of healthy, functioning brains confirms that Broca’s and
Wernacke’s areas are involved in normal language function Techniques: PET, MEG, MRI. |
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CRITICAL PERIOD
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A ‘window of opportunity’ during which input must be received for normal
development. Lenneberg proposed in the 1990’s that there is a critical period for language. |
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Binocular vision in cats
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For cats there is a critical period of visual input (4 weeks to 4 months). Cats who
do not receive appropriate input during this period will never see correctly. Monkeys (macaques) and humans also have a critical period for binocular vision. Early correction of visual problems (e.g. cataracts) is crucial. |
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Critical period in songbirds
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Songbirds, such as the zebra finch, have a critical period for inout in their species’
song. Deprivation or delayed exposure causes various disruptions by species. |
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DELAYED FIRST LANGUAGE
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‘wild’ children;
Genie; Some deaf children Without linguistic input in childhood, eventual language development is impaired. |
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The Case of Genie
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Severely abused and neglected
No linguistic input until age 13 Learned some words and combinations Did not learn many aspects of language. |
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Deaf children
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Some are exposed to sign language;
Some succeed with oral language; Others: o cannot access oral language o are not exposed to sign language for some years; o begin exposure to sign language in later childhood. |
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EFFECTS IN ENGLISH
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Late first language learners have greater difficulty with learning (written)
English as a second language. They have problems, especially with complex syntax (sentence structure) and morphology. |
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CRITICAL PERIOD EFFECTS ON SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
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SLA (second language acquisition) generally higher with earlier exposure;
Most noticeable effects in phonology / morphology. |
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THE EFFECTS If first or second language input is delayed:
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Language learning is effortful;
Foreign accents are usual; There is incomplete mastery of tacit rules. This is consistent with the Nativist view, namely, the view that language is a biological ‘organ’. |
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THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION
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The Human brain is a real-world computing device. Therefore, the human brain
can be simulated by a (sufficiently powerful) digital computer. |
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ENGINEERING
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Artificial Intelligence – programming computers to solve the problems that the
human brain can solve. Machine Vision Robotics Natural Language Processing |
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2 types of SCIENCE
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Cognitive Psychology
Generative Grammar |
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Cognitive Psychology –
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computationally explicit models of mental processes
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Generative Grammar –
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computationally explicit models of linguistic competence
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Two factors GENERATION PROCEDURE
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Input – (none)
Output – Infinite list of grammatical sentences |
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FORMAL GRAMMAR
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Formal grammars can be used to build generation procedures that model linguistic
competence. |
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A formal grammar is
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a set of symbols and rules that generate strings of symbols.
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A string is
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just a finite sentence of symbols:
o Set of symbols, e.g.: A, B, C, D, S. o One symbol is chosen as the initial symbol, e.g.: Initial symbol = S o Rewrite rules: e.g.: S A C ‘Wherever S occurs it can be replaced by AC’ o Nominal compound rule is a rewrite rule: N N N |
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HOW A FORMAL GRAMMAR WORKS
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1. Computation begins with Initial Symbol
2. Rules apply in any order until no further rule applies 3. We say that the formal grammar generates the resulting string |
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RECURSION
of Formal Grammar |
A formal grammar is recursive if it has a symbol X that can be rewritten as a string
containing X. |
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PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
A formal grammar that |
(i) generates (all and only) the grammatical sentences of a language, and
(ii) captures native speakers’ knowledge of how words are grouped into phrases. |
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Symbols:
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categories and lexical items
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Initial symbol:
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the symbol for a sentence
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Rules:
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rewrite rules that give the structure of linguistic phrases
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The result of computation in formal grammar is
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a grammatical sentence.
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Phrase structures goal
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to be able to precisely characterize the structure of sentences
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Phrase structure trees: Root node
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the top node in a tree (undominated)
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Phrase structure trees: Branches
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the lines connecting nodes
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Phrase structure trees: Undominated
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no branches above the node only below it
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Phrase structure trees: Terminal elements
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the actual words
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Phrase structure trees: Terminal nodes
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nodes that dominate no other nodes
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Phrase structure trees: Intermediate nodes
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branches above and below them
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Phrases
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-Words that belong together in a sentence
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Determining Phrases
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Substitution test; a pronoun can be substitute for some group of words
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Phrasal categories are
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determined by their heads
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The head is
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the kind of element the phrase generally must include, e.g.:
N(noun) V(verb) A(adjective) P(preposition) |
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The head of a sentence is Inflection
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the information about the tense (=time) of the sentence
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A declarative Sentence is
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an Inflection Phrase (IP)
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Phrase Structure (PS) Rules:
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- tell how to make tree diagrams
- trees represent our intuitions about groupings - represent knowledge about which groupings are possible |
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A declarative phrase is
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an Inflectional Phrase (IP)
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Inflection
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The information about the tense
(=time) of the sentence. |
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PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
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PS rules tell how to make tree diagrams.
PS trees represent our intuitions about groupings. PS rules represent knowledge about which groupings are possible. |
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PHRASE COMPONENTS
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Phrases must contain a head.
Phrases may also contain a complement and a specifier. |
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X’-THEORY
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XP (Specifier) X’
X’ X (Complement) |
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X’-THEORY AND ACQUISITION
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X’-Theory significantly simplifies the task of acquiring PS rules. Instead of having
to learn a new rule from scratch for each category, children just fill in the X’ template. |
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GENERATIVE GRAMMAR
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PS rules are part of Generative Grammar.
o Computationally explicit models of linguistic competence. Descriptive adequacy. o Generate all and only the grammatical sentences of the language. |
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POTENTIAL INADEQUACIES
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Undergeneration
Overgeneration |
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Undergeneration
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Failure to generate some grammatical sentences of the
language. |
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Overgeneration
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System generates sentences that are ungrammatical
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PS GRAMMAR AS A FORMAL GRAMMAR
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1. Symbols: terminal elements and categories.
2. Initial symbol: IP. 3. Rules: PS rules conforming to the X’ principles. |
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SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS
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The PS rules constitute the syntax of a language;
The rules that interpret phrases are the semantics |
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GENERATIVE GRAMMAR Goal:
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Correctly represent tacit knowledge that native speakers have of their
language. |
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DESCRIPTIVE ADEQUACY
A property of a particular (PS) grammar |
Generates all (and only) grammatical sentences;
Accurately reflects speakers’ intuitions about ambiguity, substitution, etc. |
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EXPLANATORY ADEQUACY
A property of a theory of grammar, rather than an individual grammar |
The ability to account for observed cross-linguistic variation;
The ability to account for the uniformity of language acquisition in children. |
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PRINCIPLES AND PARAMETERS THEORY
Principles: |
Aspects of language that are universal to all human languages, and which are potentially
innate |
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PRINCIPLES AND PARAMETERS THEORY
Parameters: |
Points of permitted variation across languages
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X-BAR PRINCIPLES
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All phrases have an X’ level and a head X;
Phrases can have a complement; Phrases can have a specifier. The skeleton of phrases is the same, even when they lack a complement or a specifier. |
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PARAMETER SETTING
English |
Specifier appears to the left of X’: XP (Specifier) X’
Complement appears to the right of X: X’ X (Complement) |
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PARAMETER SETTING
Head-final language |
Specifier appears to the left of X’: XP (Specifier) X’
Complement appears to the left of X: X’ (Complement) X |
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NATIVIST EXPLANATION
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Some properties of language are built in (innate), others have to be learned
(experience) In-built properties: properties that are the same in all languages Parameters: limited role for experience. |