Ling 200 Midterm I

Front 1

prescriptive rules

Back 1

rules of condemned usage (e.g. don't split an infinitive), irrelevant to study of linguistics

Front 2

descriptive rules

Back 2

general statement of systematicity in language, observable patterns that languages follow, representations of native speakers' linguistic knowledge

Front 3

"code model" of communication

Back 3

speaker's thought --(encoding)--> says message ----> hears message
--(decoding)--> hearer's thought
too simple because it neglects context and inference

Front 4

context

Back 4

includes physical environment, participants, social setting, prior discourse, and cultural norms and expectations; makes things go without saying

Front 5

inference

Back 5

the conveyed message is not identical with or goes beyond what is literally said

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speech acts

Back 6

an action carried out through language; 6 types: representatives, questions, commissives, declarations, expressives, verdictives, directives

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representatives

Back 7

represent a state of affairs, are either true or false; e.g. assertions, statements, claims, hypotheses

Front 8

commissives

Back 8

commit the speaker to a course of action; e.g. promises, threats, vows

Front 9

declarations

Back 9

result in the state they name; e.g. blessings, hirings, firings, baptism, arrest, marriage

Front 10

expressives

Back 10

indicate the speaker's attitudes; e.g. greetings, apologies, thanks, condolences

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verdictives

Back 11

make assessments or judgements; e.g. appraisals, assessments, convictions

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directives

Back 12

intended to get the addressee to carry out an action; e.g. commands, requests, challenges, invitations

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locution

Back 13

what is said, the literal meaning of the words

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illocution

Back 14

what is meant, what the speaker tries to convey with the words

Front 15

Grice's cooperative principle

Back 15

speakers cooperate, even when they argue; all speakers design their utterances in accordance with certain norms of talk and can expect others to as well

Front 16

Grice's maxims

Back 16

how people cooperate in speech; 4 maxims: quantity, relevance, manner, quality

Front 17

maxim of quantity

Back 17

say enough, but not too much
e.g. "do you have any pets?" "I have two cats" -> I have two and no more than two cats and no other pets

Front 18

maxim of relevance

Back 18

be relevant
e.g. "Do you have any pets?" "I'm allergic" -> No, I don't have any pets, and I assume you'll wonder why so I'll just tell you it's because I'm allergic

Front 19

maxim of manner

Back 19

be orderly
e.g. giving directions in the order you'll take them

Front 20

maxim of qality

Back 20

say what you believe to be true; telling the truth as the default makes it possible to achieve communication effects with obviously untrue statements (i.e. sarcasm)

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indirect speech act

Back 21

a speech act that involves an apparent violation of the cooperative principle but is in fact indirectly cooperative; difference in locution and illocution
e.g. "Is the boss in?" "The light's on in her office."

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direct speech act

Back 22

a speech act in which the locution and illocution coincide

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implicature

Back 23

the meaning which is inferred from the fact that a maxim is flouted

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corpus

Back 24

'body' of data

Front 25

turn taking

Back 25

idea that conversations consist of turns during which the speaker "holds the floor"; we get the floor through cues such as falling intonation, eye gaze/body movement, or a pause

Front 26

backchanneling

Back 26

when someone speaks without intending to take the floor; signal that the hearer is paying attention; e.g. yeah or okay

Front 27

adjacency pairs

Back 27

a pair of turns produced by two speakers; they are contiguous, ordered, and matched; sometimes the contiguous requirement is violated with an insertion sequence ("where's the milk?" "the skim milk?" "yeah." "on the counter.")

Front 28

repair

Back 28

trying to fix something that was said; can be self-initiated or other-initiated

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metaphor

Back 29

understanding one thing in terms of another; mapping of concepts from one semantic domain onto another domain; helps us understand complex phenomena; e.g. WAR IS ARGUMENT

Front 30

metonymy

Back 30

referring to one entity by means of another, related entity; the two entities are semantically contiguous; part for whole, cause for effect, producer for product

Front 31

meronymy

Back 31

part-whole relation; e.g. engine is a meronym of car

Front 32

prototype

Back 32

the best, clearest example of a category; combines all of the typical features; results from frequent exposure

Front 33

prototype theory

Back 33

categories are organized around prototypes; to be included in the category some but not all of the characteristic features must be present; category membership is a matter of degree; members resemble each other, but are not equally good representatives

Front 34

mental lexicon

Back 34

where speakers "get" their words from when tehy talk

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referential meaning

Back 35

a words literal meaning; denotation

Front 36

social meaning

Back 36

information about the speaker's background or the context

Front 37

affective meaning

Back 37

information about the speaker's emotions or attitude

Front 38

lexicon

Back 38

the list of all words and morphemes stored in a native speaker's memory; this internalized dictionary includes all nonpredictable information about lexical items

Front 39

hyponymy

Back 39

type relation; e.g. car is a hyponym of vehicle

Front 40

antonymy

Back 40

opposite meanings; can be gradable (e.g. rich-poor) or non-gradable (e.g. even-odd)

Front 41

converseness

Back 41

reciprocol relationship between two words; e.g. husband-wife

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synonymy

Back 42

two forms with the same meaning

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homonymy

Back 43

one form with multiple unrelated meanings; e.g. bank - place where you take your money or the area next to a river

Front 44

polysemy

Back 44

one form with multiple related meanings; e.g. summit - top of a hill or the meeting of top people in power

Front 45

homography vs. homophony

Back 45

homographs are homonyms that are spelled the same, while homophones are homonyms that sound the same but are spelled differently

Front 46

content words

Back 46

open class; words with a definite meaning; can be formed via morphological processes

Front 47

function words

Back 47

closed class; grammar words; CAPPA: Conjunctions Articles Prepositions Pronouns Auxiliaries

Front 48

deixis

Back 48

a situation in which the words take their meaning completely from context and mean nothing without the contextual information.

Front 49

spatial deixis

Back 49

context depends on where it is said; e.g. here or there

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temporal deixis

Back 50

context depends on when it is said; e.g. now, today, or yesterday

Front 51

personal deixis

Back 51

context depends on who says it; e.g. I, we, or you

Front 52

semantic role

Back 52

the way in which the referent of the noun phrase contributes to the state, action, or situation described by the sentence

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agent

Back 53

responsible initiator of an action

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patient

Back 54

the entity that undergoes a certain change of state

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experiencer

Back 55

that which receives a sensory input

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instrument

Back 56

the intermediary through which an agent performs the action

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cause

Back 57

any natural force that brings about a change of state

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recipient

Back 58

that which receives a physical object

Front 59

benefactive

Back 59

that for which an action is performed

Front 60

locative

Back 60

the location of an action or state

Front 61

temporal

Back 61

the time at which the action or state occurred

Front 62

morpheme

Back 62

smallest meaningful unit in language; cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts

Front 63

free morpheme

Back 63

can stand alone as a complete word

Front 64

bound morpheme

Back 64

cannot stand on its own as a complete word; must attach to another morpheme

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stem

Back 65

typically a free morpheme; the core of the word to which other morphemes attach; carries the main semantic content

Front 66

affix

Back 66

bound; the morphemes which attach to a stem; 4 types: prefix, suffix, circumfix, infix

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prefix

Back 67

attaches to the beginning of the stem

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suffix

Back 68

attaches to the end of the stem; sometimes alters teh spelling of the stem

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circumfix

Back 69

goes around teh stem; rare, does not exist in modern English

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infix

Back 70

inserted into the stem; rare in the world's languages

Front 71

bound stems or cranberry morphs

Back 71

stems that aren't actually free morphemes; e.g. cran in cranberry

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inflectional morpheme

Back 72

bound morpheme that creates variant forms of a word to mark its syntactic function in a sentence

Front 73

derivational morpheme

Back 73

morpheme that derives a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning

Front 74

reduplication

Back 74

all or part of a stem is repeated

Front 75

degrees of synthesis

Back 75

indicates number of morphemes per word
isolating - one
synthetic - multiple but one stem
polysynthetic - multiple stems

Front 76

degrees of fusion

Back 76

indicates number of meanings per morpheme
agglutinating - one
fusional - multiple

Front 77

word formation processes

Back 77

affixation, compounding, zero-derivation, clipping, blending, acronym, initialism, backformation, and borrowing

Front 78

affixation

Back 78

4 kinds: prefix, suffix, infix, or circumfix; adding an affix to change the meaning

Front 79

compounding

Back 79

putting existing words dogether to create new words; e.g. blackbird

Front 80

zero-derivation

Back 80

changing what word class it belongs to without changing it's structure; to noun a verb

Front 81

clipping

Back 81

shortening a word and keeping the meaning; e.g. examination --> exam

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blending

Back 82

combining two words; e.g. smoke + fog = smog

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acronym

Back 83

shortenings in which the initial letters of an expression are joined and pronounced as a word; e.g. NASA

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initialism

Back 84

shortenings in which the initial letters are pronounced as individual letters; e.g. FBI

Front 85

backformation

Back 85

e.g. creating pronunciate from pronunciation

Front 86

bound stems or cranberry morphs

Back 86

stems that aren't actually free morphemes; e.g. cran in cranberry

Front 87

inflectional morpheme

Back 87

bound morpheme that creates variant forms of a word to mark its syntactic function in a sentence

Front 88

derivational morpheme

Back 88

morpheme that derives a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning

Front 89

reduplication

Back 89

all or part of a stem is repeated

Front 90

degrees of synthesis

Back 90

indicates number of morphemes per word
isolating - one
synthetic - multiple but one stem
polysynthetic - multiple stems

Front 91

degrees of fusion

Back 91

indicates number of meanings per morpheme
agglutinating - one
fusional - multiple

Front 92

word formation processes

Back 92

affixation, compounding, zero-derivation, clipping, blending, acronym, initialism, backformation, and borrowing

Front 93

affixation

Back 93

4 kinds: prefix, suffix, infix, or circumfix; adding an affix to change the meaning

Front 94

compounding

Back 94

putting existing words dogether to create new words; e.g. blackbird

Front 95

zero-derivation

Back 95

changing what word class it belongs to without changing it's structure; to noun a verb

Front 96

clipping

Back 96

shortening a word and keeping the meaning; e.g. examination --> exam

Front 97

blending

Back 97

combining two words; e.g. smoke + fog = smog

Front 98

acronym

Back 98

shortenings in which the initial letters of an expression are joined and pronounced as a word; e.g. NASA

Front 99

initialism

Back 99

shortenings in which the initial letters are pronounced as individual letters; e.g. FBI

Front 100

backformation

Back 100

e.g. creating pronunciate from pronunciation

Front 101

borrowing

Back 101

using words from other languages; e.g. quesadilla or tsunami

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constituent

Back 102

syntactic unit that functions as part of a larger unit within a sentence; verb phrase, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase

Front 103

constituency tests

Back 103

substitution test (constituents can be substituted by a single word); question test (can you replace it with a question word, and then answer the question with that exact phrase?)

Front 104

lexical ambiguity

Back 104

same word has different meanings

Front 105

structural ambiguity

Back 105

different meanings caused by different possible syntactic parsings by PS rules

Front 106

garden path ambiguity

Back 106

type of structural ambiguity in which the beginning of a sentence suggests a different structure than the complete sentence

Front 107

phrase structure rules

Back 107

rules that describe the composition of constituents in underlying structure; e.g. S --> NP (AUX) VP

Front 108

subject

Back 108

a noun phrase immediately dominated by S in a phrase structure

Front 109

direct object

Back 109

the noun phrase in a clause that, together with the verb, usually forms the verb phrase constituent; the object NP is immediately dominated by the VP

Front 110

indirect object

Back 110

daughter of VP, sister of V; precedes direct object

Front 111

oblique

Back 111

prepositional object; NP that is not a subject, direct object, or indirect object

Front 112

passive

Back 112

Bob polished the car. --> The car was polished by Bob.
1) switch OBJ NP and SUBJ NP 2) insert form of passive auxiliary be 3) mark new OBJ NP with by

Front 113

yes/no question

Back 113

Bob has polished the car. --> Has Bob polished the car? or Bob polished the car. --> Did Bob polish the car?
switch SUBJ NP and AUX; possibly preceded by insertion of form of auxiliary do

Front 114

wh-question

Back 114

Bob polished the car. --> What did Bob polish?
1) insert form of auxiliary do 2) switch SUBJ NP and AUX 3) replace OBJ with wh-PRO 4) move wh-PRO to the front

Front 115

SUB-AUX inversion

Back 115

switching SUBJ NP and AUX

Front 116

do-support

Back 116

insertion of form of auxiliary do

Front 117

wh-movement

Back 117

moving wh-PRO to the front