Lecture Ten: International Conflict Resolution

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Diplomacy (General)

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The main conflict management technique for both inter and intrastate conflicts

Produces other peaceful interactions such as international law

Conducted through negotiation and compromise

Tends toward the prevention of violent conflict

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Ancient Diplomacy

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Conducted between kingdoms and civilizations

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Diplomacy in the Middle Ages

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a personal service conducted by religious officials

diplomats had immunity through religious protection

Cardinal Richelieu is representative of this time period of diplomacy

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Diplomacy in the Italian Kingdoms

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First establishments of embassies

complex relations

spying

hostage-taking: diplomats are seen as holders of knowledge. Consequent use of torture and extortion for the extraction of information.

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Classical Diplomacy

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Plenipotentiaries: credentialed diplomats

Official delegation: support staff, advisors, etc.

Diplomatic immunity established in the 1500s for diplomats, their delegations, properties, and residence, as well as immunities from host state laws.

Extraterritoriality: embassy of a state is protected and sovereign soil of the outside state

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Pluralist Diplomacy

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Summit Diplomacy: conducted between heads of state before or after the real negotiations take place, with ample opportunities for press and photo ops

Treaty Negotiation: International public law, and norm creation

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Track II Diplomacy

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Informal or citizens diplomacy (encouraged by NGOs)

non-diplomatic, and non-official negotiations

Used to test and debate new ideas without commitment; brainstorming and exchange of ideas

usually involves government-endorsed elites

Governments may use track II diplomacy as a means of testing the waters of public opinion before formalizing their position.

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Track III Diplomacy

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Diplomacy without government officials or social elites

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Military Victory

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A type of negotiated peace settlement that invokes and imposed 'agreement' that can result in plundering behaviour (to pay for armies, rewards, etc.).

This type of settlement serves as a deterrent, especially if the imposing party chose to attain submission of the defeated party through brutal means.

Therefore, war remains more of a deterrent, or a threat, rather than an agreement.

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Landmark Peace Agreement

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Occurs when there is a stalemate, or the cost of extending the conflict will have a greater cost than the potential gains.

Ex: 1648 Peace of Westphalia, which involved numerous treaties and multilateral diplomacy, and resulted in the emergence of the modern state.

There may be limited lasting peace measures, and new written contracts

They are generally preferred over war nowadays because of the cost of professional armies and equipment, as well as the potentially devastating effects of technological warfare (Great powers prefer settlements because they fear nuclear escalation)

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Pacific Settlement of Disputes

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A contemporary peace agreement as laid out in the UN charter that aims to use conflict resolution to avoid war.

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Adjudication

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Adjudication is an aspect of contemporary peace agreements that can involve tribunals. Adjudication has morphed into courts such as the ICC, and has limited enforcement powers.

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Arbitration

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Arbitration is an aspect of contemporary peace agreements that is non-binding, unless parties agree that it should be. It is informal, but generally carried out by renowned experts, or panels.

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Direct Negotiations

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Direct negotiations are an aspect of contemporary peace agreements that is face-to-face and carried out between state officials/diplomats.

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Good Offices

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Good Offices are an aspect of contemporary peace agreements that involve communications and negotiations facilitated by a third party on neutral territory

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Enquiry

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Enquiry is an aspect of contemporary peace agreements that involves third party fact finding, information gathering and dissemination.

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Cease-Fire

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Cease-fires are aspects of contemporary peace agreements that involve a negotiated end to hostilities for a set period of time.

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Mediation

(Zartmann)

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Mediation is an aspect of contemporary peace agreements that involves the settling of a dispute by a third-party.

International organizations or other similar bodies generally organize the mediation.

In the post cold-war era U.S. hegemony has resulted in there enforcement of peace through presence in mediations. Because they are such a powerful state, they usually overwhelm negotiations in favour of one state/their desired outcome.

NGOs can also be involved

Zartmann: mediation is consequential when there is a mutually hurting stalemate

Content of Mediations:

- Status quo antebellum: return to the status quo before the war

Otherwise: borders, land exchange, refugees, the level of force, involvement and responsibility of the international community, regime changes and the political system, economic changes, and human rights

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Peace Missions

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3 Types:

1. Observation: mission monitors and implements peace treaties

2. Peacekeeping: mission monitors parties and keeps them apart in the hopes that they will reach an agreement. At the least, they create a buffer zone.

3. Preventative Deployment: mission prevents violent conflict from materializing

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Sanctions

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A coercive action in contemporary peacemaking that can involve:

- A diplomatic "call to the mat" which might involve expulsion, or limit the diplomats movement

- Travel sanctions on the nationals of a certain state

- Embargos

Sanctions are generally ineffective against authoritarian sanctions

Smart sanctions will target the powerful and the elites

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Peace Enforcement

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A coercive action in contemporary peacemaking that is taken after a deal had been reached. It is often implemented in cases of intrastate wars, and may force further negotiations. It also provides monitory and compliance enforcement.

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Humanitarian Intervention

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A coercive action in contemporary peacemaking that is taken by the international community to prevent a massive humanitarian disaster.

It is not written into the UN Charter.

They often have underlying political interests attached to them and/or they are carried out on the basis of international opinion.

Humanitarian intervention is considered a moral rights.

Targeted at governments engaging in mass human rights violations against large, unarmed populations.

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Peacebuilding

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Post-conflict action in contemporary peace aimed at building structures and institutions meant to prevent a relapse into violence.

- includes physical, economic, social, and political infrastructure

Carried out by other actors as well as the UN.

Peace building goes beyond development aid to the rebuilding of a society and its institutions.

Peace building is concerned with positive peace: emancipation, development, and society, rather than negative peace (absence of war).

3 Areas of building: Human security, Nation-buiding (rebuilding identities), and state building.

Four Transitions:

1. Security: borders, safety, disarmament

2. Political: democratic, liberal

3. Economic: move to peace-time economy

4. Social: developing culture of tolerance and peace

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Confidence Building Measures

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An aspect of post-conflict contemporary peace practice that involves building policies and processes to decrease the likelihood of violence between armed group, and additionally to create reassurance (eliminate defection), and reciprocity (mutual benefits and gestures of goodwill).

Third parties are usually involved.

Transparency and verification mechanisms are put in place.

Measures may include joint military exercises, training, exchanges, and protocols.

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Disarmament

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A post-conflict aspect of modern peace practice that operates on the simple logic that no arms = no fighting.

Examples:

- Costa Rica since 1949 has had no army, but has had a security force of 8000, and is otherwise completely peaceful.

- Weapons bans: 1139, Crossbows; 1968: nuclear non-proliferation; 1997: Chemical Weapons; 1999: land mines

- Arms control treaties (bilateral are most successful, focused on particular conflicts and conflicting parties, more effective than general bans.